Verification of drainage design criteria in the Nile Delta,Egypt

A monitoring programme to verify the design criteria of subsurface drainage systems was conducted in a pilot area in the Nile Delta in Egypt. The programme, which covered a 9-year period, included the monitoring of the cropping pattern, crop yield, soil salinity, watertable, discharge and salinity of the drainage water and overpressure in the subsurface drainage system. The results showed that the yield of all crops (wheat, berseem, maize, rice and cotton) increased significantly after the installation of the subsurface drainage system. Optimum growing conditions for the combination of crops that are cultivated in rotation in the area required that the watertable midway between the drains had a average depth of 0.80 m. A corresponding drain discharge of 0.4 mm/d was sufficient to cope with the prevailing percolation losses of irrigation water and to maintain favourable soil-salinity levels. The additional natural drainage rate in the area was estimated at 0.5 mm/d. The most effective way to attain these favourable drainage conditions is to install drains at a depth between 1.20 to 1.40 m. For drain-pipe capacity the Manning equation can be used with a design rate of 1.2 mm/d, for collector drains this rate should be increased to 1.8 mm/d to compensate for the higher discharge rates from rice fields. These rates should be used in combination with a roughness coefficient (n) of 0.028 to take sedimentation and irregularities in the alignment into account. When this value of the roughness coefficient is used, no additional safety has to be incorporated in the other design factors (e.g. the design rate).     

Time-dependent drainage from root zone and drainage coefficient under different irrigation management levels for subsurface drainage design in Egypt

Drainage water from the lower boundary of the root zone is an important factor in the irrigated agricultural lands for prediction of the water table behavior and understanding and modeling of water and chemical movement in the soil profile. The drainage coefficient is an important parameter for the design of subsurface drainage. On a 33,138 ha of the Nile Delta in Egypt, this study is conducted using 90 irrigation periods over a 3-year crop rotation to estimate the time-dependent drainage from the root zone and the design subsurface drainage coefficient with different cropping seasons and irrigation management levels.The results showed that the cropping seasons and the irrigation management levels as indicated by different irrigation efficiency are significantly affected the drainage rate from the root zone and the design value of subsurface drainage coefficient. Drainage rates from the root zone of 1.72 mm/d and 0.82 mm/d were estimated for summer and winter seasons, respectively. These rates significantly decreased in a range of 46% to 92% during summer season and 60% to 98% during winter season when the irrigation efficiency is increased in a range of 5% to 15%. The subsurface drainage coefficient was estimated to be 1.09 mm/d whereas the design drain pipe capacity was estimated to be 2.2 mm/d, based on the peak discharge of the most critical crop (maize), rather than 4.0 mm/d which is currently used. A significant decrease of the drainage coefficient and the drain pipe capacity ranges from 18% to 45% was found with the increase of irrigation efficiency in a range of 5% to 15%. The leaching requirement for each crop was also estimated.     

农田不同排水措施地下排水效果模拟试验研究

在地下水位较高、地表易于形成积水的中国南方地区,通过农田排水措施可以及时排除多余地表积水,快速降低地下水位,以达到排涝降渍、协同调控的目的.文中基于室内砂槽试验,揭示暗管排水、明沟排水、不同反滤体高度的反滤体排水及改进暗管排水等措施的地下排水规律及效果.结果表明:将暗管周围土体置换为高渗透性土体介质的改进暗管排水可明显提高排水流量,当土体置换高度达2 cm时(对应于田间条件40 cm),其排水流量均高于相同埋深条件下的其他排水措施,达暗管排水的1.59~1.66倍;改进暗排在地表积水消失时仍保持较大的排水流量,可达相同埋深暗管流量的2倍以上,在积水层消失后,能迅速降低农田土壤水的渍害胁迫,将地下水位降低至暗管埋设高度;各种排水措施,在地表积水即将消失时,出现了流量与水头变化幅度较大的现象.相对于各种地下排水措施,改进暗管排水在除涝降渍中存在明显优势.研究结果可为涝渍灾害易发地区高效除涝降渍减灾工程设计和建设提供参考.     

圩区农田塑料暗管埋深和间距的确定方法评述

农田塑料暗管埋深和间距的确定 ,是塑料暗管排水系统规划设计的主要任务 ,关系到排水效果和投资效益。本文介绍了农田塑料暗管埋深和间距的确定方法 ,并对之进行了评述     

The application of area reduction formulae for land drainage design

Area reduction formulae of the type Q=cAⁱ where Q=discharge, A=area and c and i are empirical coefficients, are still extensively used in land drainage design to estimate discharges. This paper analyses the structure of these formulae and the meaning of the coefficients. Empirical values of the coefficient i (area reduction factor) are assessed in the light of results of models studies and available rainfall distribution indices. It is concluded that in the special case of land drainage design, area reduction type formulae have definite merits.     

Adaptability constraints of a technically and economically feasible subsurface drainage system in the low-lying acid sulphate soils of Kerala,India

This paper discusses the introduction of subsurface drainage as a tool to improve rice production in low land areas of acid sulphate soils. Pipe drains with 15 and 30 m spacing were installed in farmers fields in coastal lowlands of Kerala, India, at Kuttanad. Soil conditions improved within 2 years after the introduction of the subsurface drainage and significantly improved the crop yield. Data collected over a period of 14 years, showed a yield increase of 1.1 t/ha (43%) compared to non-drained areas. An economic analysis indicated that subsurface drainage is feasible with a benefit–cost ratio of 2.45, an internal rate of return of 47% and a net present value of Rs 5.17 million. The poor financial status of the farmers, however, is the main constraint for the large-scale adoption of the comparatively capital-intensive subsurface drainage systems in the acid sulphate soils of Kerala.     

Analysis of groundwater behaviour in a farmer controlled subsurface tile drainage system in Mardan, Pakistan

Extensive subsurface drainage system was installed in districtMardan in the North West Frontier Provinceof Pakistan in 1987 to control increasingwater logging and salinity problems due tocanal irrigation. Several recentlycompleted fields studies have indicatedthat subsurface drainage system hasenormously lowered watertable in certainareas due to extensive drainage network. Therefore, a study of controlled subsurfacedrainage technique was initiated in MardanScarp area to observe the temporal andspatial variations in water table depths ofthis specific case under various modes ofcanal irrigation and monsoon rains. Twoartificially drained areas, consisting of40 ha and 160 ha respectively, werecontrolled and selected for extensivemonitoring. A total of 98 observationswells (7.6 cm dia. and 4.1 m depth) wereinstalled in between lateral drains toobserve water table fluctuation. Theresults of this study are very interesting.Each of the two areas monitored in thestudy behaved differently. It was observedthat in one of the areas design water tabledepth at 1.1 m was maintained with properfunctioning of the controlled techniqueapplied to the subsurface drainage system. The results from this area showed that 25to 55% of the time throughout the yearachieved this objective whereas in thesecond area desired water table could notbe maintained and water table depth in thisarea remained between 2.0 to 2.7 m causingunnecessary water stress to plants. Alsoit was observed that watertable in theformer area is mostly controlled by thefunctional behavior of the irrigationcanal. In addition, the proper functioningof controlled techniques in subsurfacedrainage system supplemented veryefficiently to retain the groundwater levelto the optimal limits in dry season and tothe design ones in the others for timelyneeds of the crops. Also rainfalls havesignificant impact on the spatial andtemporal behaviors of water table depths inboth the areas during the monsoon season.     

Drainage Design in the Gharb Plain in Morocco

The Gharb plain in Morocco faces both problems of excesswinter rainfall and salinity hazards due to a shallow,permanent and saline groundwater. A large area of 80.000 hahas been equipped with subsurface drains out of a totalplanned area of 200.000 ha. This system has been designedwithout any local references and has encountered severalmaintenance problems mainly caused by high drain depths.A pilot experiment has been installed to provide drainagedesign criteria appropriate to the local conditions. Mainexperimental results based on water and salinity balance andon groundwater flow are presented in the paper. They show thatin the Gharb plain, drainage systems should be designed fromwinter drainage design criterion. The paper also stresses onthe particular attention to paid to the surface drainage whichremove about 40% of the excess water.     

Verification of impermeable barrier depth and effective radius for drain spacing using exact solution of the steady state flow to drains

The steady-state drainage equation ofHooghoudt (1940) has adrawback that tables for the determination of the so-calledequivalentlayer, d_e are needed. These calculations arecumbersome as d_e is dependenton the unknown spacing. Moreover, additional head islost due to theconvergence of stream lines towards the finite numberof perforations withinthe pipe wall. Therefore, corrections are required byreplacing the actualdrain radius by its effective radius. The designers inEgypt assume that thedepth of impermeable layer is infinity which resultsin an over estimationof drain spacing that will affect the ability of thedrainage system.Van der Molen and Wesseling (1991) have developed aseries solution toreplace the Hooghoudts approximation method for theequivalent depth by anexact solution. A comparison between this solution andthose of Lovell andYoungs (1984) and Hooghoudt (1940) showed that theexact solution proved tobe very accurate and efficient solution. The mainobjective of this study isto verify an accurate depth of the impermeable barrierand an effectiveradius of drain pipes which should be used in thedesign process using theexact solution.A field investigation was conducted in a study area of33,138 ha in theNorthern Delta of Egypt within Daqahliya Governorate.The results indicatethat a 5 m depth instead of infinity for theimpermeable layer in Nile Deltaand an effective radius of 90 mm should be used in thedesign process. Theuse of the exact solution for equivalent depth is acrucial issue especiallywith the high rate of on-going drainage projects inEgypt.     

扬州沿运灌区暗管排水土工布外包滤料的水力性能试验研究

农田暗管排水系统建设是提高农业机械化作业效率的有效措施之一.土工布作为排水暗管外包滤料时,需要具有良好的透水性能和抗淤堵能力.文中以扬州段沿运灌区为例,针对当地土壤中粉粒含量较高,土工布外包滤料筛选困难等实际问题,参考相关技术准则,选用2种开孔率和厚度不同的土工布进行了水力渗透试验,并与传统的河砂反滤材料进行了对比,筛选出适合当地土壤的土工布外包材料.研究结果显示,所选用的2种土工布透水性能存在较大差异,其中厚度较大(0.41 mm)、孔径较小(180 μm)的土工布A的透水性能较好,渗透系数为初始值的54.1%,高于河砂滤层的46.1%,而厚度为0.35 mm、孔径为227 μm的土工布B渗透系数仅为初始值的30.2%.相比于土工布B,土工布A具有更好的抗淤堵能力,长期使用后淤堵率比土工布B低16%.通过对土工布表面形成的、透水性较低的滤饼分析发现,土工布B不但自身发生了较大程度淤堵,其表面形成的滤饼较为密实,是影响其渗透性能的直接原因.     

Evaluating the width of hydrological buffer zones between drained agricultural land and nature reserve areas

This paper presents the development of a practical tool to evaluate the required width of a hydrological buffer zone, in order to maintain the effects of subsurface drainage within reasonable limits. A simple mathematical formulation describing the lateral drawdown extent of a drained water table in unsteady flow conditions was used. Simulation results were worked out by introducing the concepts of protection level or threshold of tolerance for the vegetation of the protected area The latter are expressed in terms of an admissible drawdown combined with exceedance duration and/or frequency criteria. An application of this method to the protection of a peat bog system in the Swiss Jura region is presented.     

建筑节能技术在给排水设计中的应用

现代经济发展迅速,可使用资源与来月匮乏,因此,建筑节能是贯彻可持续发展战略、实现国家节能规划目标、减排温室气体的重要措施,符合全球发展趋势.针对这一情况文章提出了几个建筑节能的方案.     

基于能值分析的土地开发整理后效益评价

土地整理项目后效益评价是土地开发整理事业可持续发展的重要条件。为完善土地整理项目后效益评价指标体系,促进土地开发整理的可持续发展,应用能值分析方法,以山东省淄博市杨峪地域土地整理项目为例,对土地开发整理前、后自然环境与人类社会系统能值输入与输出的变化进行分析,研究土地开发整理的后效益。结果表明,项目实施后项目区土地利用结构发生变化,总能值投入产出比增加,取得明显的经济效益、社会效益。但由于项目区开发了大面积未利用土地,造成土地环境负荷率加大,土地可持续利用指数降低。分析认为,在土地开发整理时,要尽可能减少     

暗管控制排水对棉田排水的影响

对几次较大规模降雨产生排水后排水量、排水氮素含量、地下水位等进行观测,结果发现暗管排水使得地表、地下排水量被重新分配,控制水位排水使地表排水量所占比例提高、而总排水量比常规排水减少36.4%～82.7%、地下排水峰值量较常规排水减少7.2%～85.4%。地表、地下排水硝氮质量浓度较低,一般低于4 mg/L;地表排水总氮质量浓度在2.3～11.5 mg/L之间,地下排水总氮质量浓度在0.6～9.1 mg/L之间。要减少氮素流失总量,减少排水量是关键。     

国内外暗管排水研究知识图谱可视化分析

【目的】探明国内外暗管排水研究领域的研究内容、发展动态。【方法】基于CNKI与WOS数据库,采用科技文本挖掘可视化软件VOSviwer对国内外暗管排水研究的文献引文数据进行了科学叠加可视化分析,国外机构耦合分析,国内外引文关键词共现分析,国内外研究人员合作网络分析。【结果】通过科学叠加图谱,从学科的宏观角度分析了暗管排水研究学科发展方向;通过国家合作网络分析,得出了该领域的研究强国;USA、Canada、Germany、China、Netherlands、France、Sweden、England、Denmark、Switzerland;通过机构耦合分析,确定了暗管排水研究高影响力研究机构;USDA ARS、Iowa State University、University of Illinois、University of Minnesota、Purdue University、Agriculturea nd Agri-Food Canada、U.S.Geological Survey、Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences、Ohio State University;通过国内外关键词共现网络图比较,揭示了国内外暗管排水研究的主要内容上的差异;通过国内外合作网络图分析,得出了国内外暗管排水核心研究学者之间的合作关系及他们为推动暗管排水研究所做的贡献。【结论】我国的暗管排水研究领域正处于引进吸收与发展的状态,在流域尺度暗管排水的研究、田间尺度农药与磷淋失机制、排水水质净化等方面研究薄弱。未来的新兴趋势是从暗管排水释放源头到排水的末端建立系统的研究体系,考虑多元化因素的排水管理,工程技术上在田间排水源头采用建立反硝化除氮生物反应池改善排水水质,农艺措施上非耕作期进行覆盖作物种植研究,气候变化与暗管排水研究耦合也将成为研究热点。     

A Century of Subsurface Drainage Research in India

Utility of subsurface drainageas an intervention to reclaim waterloggedsaline lands and to ensure sustainabilityof irrigated agriculture in India has beenestablished through experiments and pilotresearch conducted for over a century.While tracing the history of subsurfacedrainage in the 20th century, thispaper lists several pilots conducted in preand post independence periods. An attempthas been made to critically review thefindings emerging out of such a largenumber of pilots. Salient findings thatcould serve as design guidelines or tooperationalize the systems in an effectiveand eco-friendly manner have been puttogether for their application in future.It is believed that large scale drainageprojects would increasingly be implementedin India and many other developingcountries. In the opinion of the author,the knowledge generated in this centurywould help to design and plan subsurfacedrainage activities on which rests the foodand nutritional security of India and manyother developing nations.     

地下滴灌系统设计应用相关问题探讨

通过近年来国内外试验、示范、推广应用地下滴灌技术的实践经验,对地下滴灌系统规划设计、运行管理有关问题进行了总结和阐述,对滴灌管线的选取、适宜埋设深度的确定、灌水小区的冲洗、真空阀的设置、水质处理等地下滴灌系统设计应用常见问题逐一进行了说明,可为地下滴灌技术在我国的进一步推广应用提供参考。     

新疆叶尔羌河平原绿洲洼地旱排作用的初步分析

通过对新疆叶尔羌河流域平原绿洲一个典型洼地水量平衡的观测和计算,分析了洼地在容泄绿洲排水、排盐方面的旱排作用及排水、排盐能力。提出在绿洲排水规划时,可将旱排（或内排水）作为一种重要的排水方式,选择合适的洼地作为主要的旱排规划区。     

膜下滴灌结合暗管排水技术改良新疆盐碱地效果综述

膜下滴灌技术的大面积推广和应用,为新疆乃至西北干旱地区作物高产提供了强大的技术支撑。应用在盐碱地改良中,膜下滴灌“有灌无排”模式仅调节耕层盐分分布,并不能将盐分排出土体,长年灌溉容易引起爆发式积盐的风险,而暗管排水是目前公认的改良盐碱地最直接、最有效的方法。目前,将膜下滴灌与暗管排水有机结合形成的新型灌溉技术,充分利用膜下滴灌良好的抑蒸增温、节水抑盐等优势,同时利用暗管将淋洗盐水及时排出土体,使盐碱化土层产生新的水盐平衡,已在新疆盐碱地区开发利用中得到长足发展。本文重点分析并总结了新疆灌区膜下滴灌结合暗管排水系统的设计参数及土壤水盐运移规律,并综述了土壤理化性质及作物产量对该灌排技术的响应研究,以期为新疆盐碱地农业可持续发展提供理论依据和技术指导。     

新垦盐渍化农田暗管排水技术研究

针对新垦盐渍化农田生产中存在的问题,利用建筑用PVC下水管制作农田简易暗管,在新垦盐渍化农田改良利用中排水、排盐,水稻地一条200 m长的暗管.在地下水矿化度513 g/L的情况下,年排水童2×1044 × 104 m3,排盐量200 t以上.