Thermal conductivity and diffusivity of wood

Summary Transient simultaneous measurements of thermal conductivity and diffusivity of Swedish wood have been performed with the plane source technique on oven-dry hardwood (birch) samples at room temperature and at 100 °C. The influences of temperature, density, porosity and anisotropy on thermal conduction were investigated. The measurements were done in longitudinal (parallel to the grain) and transverse (intermediate between radial and tangential) directions. As the temperature increased from 20 to 100 °C, the thermal conductivity of each sample increased slightly for both longitudinal and transverse directions. The effect of density and porosity on the thermal conductivity may be related to the presence of other scattering mechanisms such as voids and cell boundaries. It seems that the dominant mechanism of heat transfer across the cell lumina in these types of wood is the heat conduction through the voids. An attempt was made to explain the behaviour of the effective thermal conductivity by adopting a model based on the ratio between heat conduction in parallel and serial layers of gas, liquid, and solid phases. Received 7 May 1997     

Vibrational properties of Sitka spruce heat-treated in nitrogen gas

Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Carr.) wood was heated for 0.5–16.Oh at temperatures of 120°–200°C in nitrogen gas or air. The values for Young's modulus, shear modulus, and loss tangent were measured by free-free flexural vibration tests. X-ray diffractometry was carried out to estimate the crystallinity index and crystallite width. The results obtained are as follows: (1) Density decreased at higher temperatures and longer heating times. The specific Young's modulus, specific shear modulus, crystallinity index, and crystallite width increased during the initial stage and were constant after this stage at 120°C and 160°C, whereas they increased during the initial stage and decreased later when the temperature was high. Loss tangent in the longitudinal direction increased under all conditions, whereas that in the radial direction increased at 120°C and decreased at 160°C and 200°C. (2) From the relation between Young's modulus and moisture content, it can be safely said that Young's modulus is increased by the crystallization and the decrement in equilibrium moisture content, and that crystallization (rather than degradation) is predominant at the initial stage of the heat treatment, whereas the latter is predominant as the heating time increases. (3) It is implied that the specific Young's modulus, specific shear modulus, crystallinity index, and crystallite width decreased more in air than in nitrogen gas because of oxidation in air.This study was presented in part at the 43th Annual Meeting of Japan Wood Research Society at Morioka, August 1993, the 44th Annual Meeting of Japan Wood Research Society at Nara, April 1994, and the 45th Annual Meeting of Japan Wood Research Society at Tokyo, April 1995     

Effect of EMC and air in wood on the new in-process moisture content monitoring concept under radiofrequency/vacuum (RF/V) drying

To improve the accuracy of the new in-process moisture content (MC) monitoring concept under radiofrequency/vacuum (RF/V) drying, equilibrium moisture content (EMC) tests were carried out under various ambient pressures, and pressure curves in wood were analyzed during chamber evacuation and heating phases. The results showed that EMC increased with a decrease in ambient pressure regardless of temperature, relative humidity (RH), and species. The accuracy of MC estimation for Hinoki under RF/V drying was improved from 1.5% maximum absolute errors to 0.6% after EMC modification. The pressure curves for Hinoki and Sugi under RF/V drying showed similar tendencies to an idealized process. Russian larch showed different curves, indicating that the pressure in the wood did not reach the ambient pressure because of its low permeability. Therefore, MC could not be estimated using this monitoring concept because of the presence of much air in the wood of Russian larch.     

Analysis of cyclic vacuum drying curve

The objective of this research was to analyze the cyclic vacuum drying curve within one cycle. Red oak specimens of two different groups, square in cross-section, were used. Group one was comprised of four different thicknesses (2.54, 3.81, 5.08, and 6.35 cm) with a length of 25.4 cm and group two was comprised of three different lengths (12.7, 25.4, and 38.1 cm) with the thickness of 2.54 cm. The specimens were heated to 60°C in the heating oven and then dried in the vacuum oven at 18 mm Hg. The vacuum oven was at room temperature (20°C). The vacuum pump was kept running for 140 min. It was found that the cyclic vacuum drying curve consisted of two distinct parts. The fast drying period lasted about 10 to 15 min. The slow drying period occurred when the pressure inside wood approached the ambient pressure. Most of the moisture was removed during the fast drying period.     

Solute diffusion into cell walls in solution-impregnated wood under conditioning process IV: effect of temperature on solute diffusivity

This study has focused on solute diffusing into cell walls in solution-impregnated wood under conditioning, process of evaporating solvent. The amount of the diffusion is known to be determined by the solute diffusivity and the solute-concentration difference between cell walls and cell cavities. Purpose of this paper was to clarify the effect of temperature only on the solute diffusivity that is directionally related to the thermal vibration of the solute molecule. The cross-cut block of hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa), polyethylene glycol (PEG1540), and water was employed as wood sample, solute, and solvent, respectively. The sample impregnated with a 20 mass% solution was conditioned at 20, 35, or 50 °C to finish the solute diffusion evaluated using the dimension of the sample that was conditioned followed by drying in a vacuum. To unify the solute-concentration difference, for all temperatures, the equilibrium moisture content was unified and the solvent-evaporation rate was controlled in three ways during conditioning. The solute diffusivity was higher in order of 35, 50, and 20 °C, which was evaluated by the solute diffusion at the same evaporation rate. It is clarified that the diffusivity increases with increasing the dimension of cell walls rather than with increasing the thermal vibration of solute molecule.     

针叶材瞬态温度场的有限元数值仿真

给出木材瞬态热传导分析的基本理论,针对木材的热各向异性,利用有限元方法,对木材瞬态温度场进行有限元分析和计算,获得加热过程中木材温度场的分布与变化规律.试材选取帽儿山落叶松,仿真和试验结果表明将该方法用于细胞排列规则的针叶材是可行的,有限元计算结果与试验测量结果接近.     

木质地热地板导热效能影响因素研究

为探讨不同结构型式、厚度、密度和含水率的地板对导热效能的影响,揭示影响木质地热地板导热效能的因素及规律,进而为地采暖环境下如何选用木质地热地板提供科学指导,本文通过对5种类型12款地板的导热效能指标进行测试,其结果表明:5种结构型式地板导热效能依次是:浸渍纸层压木质地板>实木地板>三层实木复合地板>多层实木复合地板>框架式实木复合地板;地板导热效能随着地板厚度的增加而降低;地板密度越大导热效能越大;地板导热效能随着含水率的升高而降低。     

Method for measuring viscoelastic properties of wood under high temperature and high pressure steam conditions

A method for measuring the viscoelastic properties of wood under high temperature and high pressure steam was developed using a testing machine with a built-in autoclave. A newly developed load cell capable of resisting a steam pressure of 16kgf/cm² and a temperature of 200°C was installed in the autoclave. This load cell could be used to determine precisely the loads while steaming at temperatures from 100°C to 200°C. In addition to load-detection problems, it was necessary to avoid the nonuniform thermal degradation of wood during the measurement process under steaming at high temperatures. This nonuniform degradation could be minimized by shortening the time required for the wood to attain thermal equilibrium using specimens conditioned to the fiber saturation point. According to this method, a stress relaxation curve for sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) wood being compressed while steaming at 180°C was obtained. The stress was seen to decrease rapidly with time, reaching almost zero at 3000s.     

Diffusion of dissolved oxygen in liquid-saturated Douglas fir sapwood

Summary A technique was developed for the determination of the effective dissolved oxygen diffusivity in liquid-saturated softwood in a diffusion cell under ambient pressure. From the measurements in the temperature range 2° to 50°C, the activation energy of diffusion was found to be 4.6 kcal/mole. The diffusivity in summerwood is about one half of that in springwood. The diffusivity of dissolved oxygen through composite springwood and summerwood layers was based upon samples of two Douglas fir sapwood blocks saturated with water. In the radial and tangential directions, diffusivity was 1.4 to 2.3x10^-6cm²/s, which is about 6 to 10% that of dissolved oxygen diffusivity in water. The diffusivity in the longitudinal direction is about 5.5 times that in the other two directions.The diffusivity of dissolved oxygen through liquor-saturated wood and the effect of delignification on oxygen diffusion were also determined.The authors are grateful to Weyerhaeuser Company and Air Products and Chemical Inc., for the financial support of this research.     

Effects of high temperature kiln drying on the practical performances of Japanese cedar wood (Cryptomeria japonica) I: changes in hygroscopicity due to heating

The effect of heating on the hygroscopicity of Japanese cedar wood was investigated as a simple evaluation of thermal degradation in large-dimension timber being kiln-dried at high temperatures (>100°C). Small wood pieces were heated at 120°C in the absence of moisture (dry heating) and steamed at 60°, 90°, and 120°C with saturated water vapor over 2 weeks, and their equilibrium moisture contents (M) at 20°C and 60% relative humidity (RH) were compared with those of unheated samples. No significant change was induced by steaming at 60°C, while heating above 90°C caused loss in weight (WL) and reduction in M of wood. The effects of steaming were greater than those of dry heating at the same heating temperature. After extraction in water, the steamed wood showed additional WL and slight increase in M because of the loss of water-soluble decomposition residue. The M of heated wood decreased with increasing WL, and such a correlation became clearer after the extraction in water. On the basis of experimental correlation, the WL of local parts in large-dimension kiln-dried timber was evaluated from their M values. The results indicated that the thermal degradation of inner parts was greater than that of outer parts.     

Factors affecting relative humidity during wood vacuum drying

Effects of pressure and temperature in the chamber during vacuum drying on the relative humidity and evaporation of wood surface were investigated by using the vacuum chamber. The setting temperature during vacuum drying included dry-bulb temperature td, the wet-bulb temperature tw and the temperature difference between the air in the vacuum chamber and the cooling water in the condenser. Results indicated that relative humidity during vacuum drying was affected by the dry-bulb temperature td, the wet-bulb temperature tw and the temperature difference between the air in the vacuum chamber and the water in the condenser. Relative humidity of wood decreased with the increase in temperature at the given temperature of the water in the condenser. The relative humidity was affected slightly by pressure in the vacuum chamber pA, and it decreased from 70% to 65% with pA increased from 50 kPa to 101 kPa. Moreover, there was nearly no evaporation under the vacuum without external heating.     

木材导热系数的研究

本文运用非平衡态热力学线性理论分析了含水率在纤维饱和点以下木材的传热,结果表明木材中的水蒸汽和束缚水参与了传热,木材导热系数由传导导热系数与因水蒸汽和束缚水扩散产生的两个等效导热系数组成。推广Siau关于木材细胞的导热理论,依据水分吸附和扩散的原理,导出了木材弦向和径向导热系数计算公式,与已发表的36种气干材弦向实验值和23种气干材径向实验值符合较好。分析木材径向传热的方法也适用于木材纵向传热。     

Anisotropic thermal properties of molded carbon phenolic spheres

Anisotropic thermal properties of molded carbon phenolic spheres (CPS), a mixture of sugi wood charcoal powders and phenol formaldehyde resin molded with a hot press, were investigated. The effects of the carbonizing temperature, particle size of chars, and density of the CPS on thermal properties were discussed. The molded CPS specimens were measured for their thermal properties using the laser flash method in both horizontal and vertical directions. The configuration of the CPS was observed by scanning electron microscopy. Anisotropy of the thermal properties (thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity) between horizontal and vertical directions of the molded CPS was much higher than that of the uncarbonized molded phenolic spheres. Therefore, converting wood into molded CPS is an effective way to enhance the thermal-anisotropy properties. More marked effects of the carbonizing temperature, particle size, and density were observed in the horizontal direction than in the vertical direction. Anisotropy in thermal properties of the molded CPS may be considered an advantage for developing a new fire-retardant material for wood composites.An outline of this study was presented at the 47^th and 48^th annual meetings of the Japan Wood Research Society, Kochi and Shizuoka, 1997 and 1998.     

Colour alteration and chemistry changes in oak wood (Quercus pedunculata Ehrh) during plain vacuum drying

The formation of chromophore groups from a phenolic compound oxidized with air and the formation of dark materials from hydrolysable extractives are considered as causes of discoloration. In this work, the colour changes, antioxidant capacity, and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectra of dust-wood are investigated in European oak wood under different plain vacuum drying conditions. The conductive heat source is maintained at four temperatures (46, 61, 70 and 80°C), and vacuum in the chamber is controlled at three different intervals (60–100, 150–200, and 250–300?mbar). Drying kinetics and temperature profiles are presented. The results suggest that degradation of extractives allows yellowing in wood and temperature improves lightness under these special drying conditions (plain vacuum). Furthermore, the presence of carbonyl groups in surfaces is related to the loss in antioxidant potency.     

Thermal-death kinetics of the bark beetle (Dendroctonus armandi; Coleoptera: Scolytidae)

Data on thermal-death kinetics of bark beetles are essential to develop phytosanitary heat treatments for pine wood and pine wood packaging materials. Using a heating block system, effects of different heating rates between 44 and 50°C at 2°C intervals on destruction of Dendroctonus armandi adult insect were examined. Heat resistance of the insects was found to increase at low heating rates (0.1 or 0.5°C/min). Therefore, the thermal-death kinetics of the beetles were determined at a high heating rate of 5.0°C/min which simulated the rapid dielectric heating of wood products. Results showed that the thermal death curve of D. armandi followed a zero-order reaction kinetic model, indicating the heat destruction rate of the beetle at different treatment temperatures to be independent of their population size. The required thermal holding times to result in destruction of the entire population were 40, 8, 4, and 2?min at 44°C, 46°C, 48°C, and 50°C, respectively. The evaluated thermal-death kinetic data are useful in developing effective beetle elimination quarantine protocols for the wood. A 50°C ?2?min heat treatment with a heating rate of ～5°C/min can be effectively used for disinfesting bark wood materials.     

The thermal reactivity of wood waste systems

The thermal decomposition of wood wastes obtained from jack pine has been studied in both oxidising and inert atmospheres using thermogravimetric techniques supported by gaseous and residue product analysis. The effects of selected sequences of chemical additives on the reaction rate parameters of both native and extracted bark samples have also been examined. The maximum rate of wood waste pyrolysis is believed to be related to the rapid decomposition of the cellulose constituent, which occurs at around 350°C in nitrogen. In air, this value is shifted to around 300°C and may be explained by the intervention of exothermic reactions involving other wood constituents present in the complex wood matrix. The trend shown in the analytical results for the various wood waste residues was similar to that established by previous workers for the pyrolysis of coalification products on the basis of H/C and O/C ratios which proceed towards the carbonisation and oxidation poles, respectively, for residues obtained from heating in inert and oxidising atmospheres. Isothermal weight-change data were found to fit model kinetic expressions which indicate that the pyrolysis process may be transport-controlled.We are pleased to acknowledge the award of support funds (C.F.) from the Ontario Ministry of the Environment.     

Effect of hydro-thermal treatment of green beech wood on its chemical and physco-mechanical properties

Summary Preliminary investigations were carried out aiming at the establishment of relationships between chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of beech wood under the influence of heating in water at 50°C and 100°C at pH values from 2.8 to 8.5 and with heating times up to 25 hours. It was found that heating of beech wood in water at 50°C does not produce remarkable changes in its properties. When green wood was heated at 100°C, insignificant changes in its density, shrinking, and -cellulose content were observed, whereas a considerable decrease in strength was found when tested in a wet state. It was further observed that on prolonged heating, the reactions of the wood and the solutions used as a heating medium under-went distinct changes, attaining an equivalent value approximating the final pH of the wood.     

木材干燥预热过程的水分流和热流分析

本文将非平衡态热力学的水分流和热流线性耦合方程应用于多孔介质 (木材 )的干燥预热过程 ,从机理上分析了其水分流和热流的特性 ,同时运用在预热样品边界上积分的方法求解耦合流方程 ,针对木材干燥预热过程进行了具体计算 ,所得的有关结论与以往的实验结论相吻合。这一结果表明线性流耦合方程是研究多孔介质干燥过程中水分流和热流的特性及其相互作用规律的有效方法 ,既可揭示耦合过程中流的本质又可对其进行定量描述。因Soret效应预热过程中存在着进入木材内的水分热扩散流 ,预热结束后木材含水率将有所增加 ,而水分和热量的输运主要集中在预热开始的前 2h内。本文关于木材干燥预热的一些结果 ,可用于木材干燥预热的生产实际中     

Inverse determination of thermal conductivity in frozen lumber

An inverse determination was applied to estimate the thermal conductivity in frozen hemlock (T. heterophylla) lumber. Temperatures at various positions in a piece of lumber were accurately determined during the heating process and the thermal conductivity was calculated using the finite difference method. The calculating thermal conductivity can be utilized to estimate the heating rate in frozen wood. The results of this study indicate that the thermal conductivity increases with moisture content in frozen lumber.     

木材真空-过热蒸汽干燥的预热特性

在真空状态下，分别对过热蒸汽和空气为干燥介质时木材干燥预热阶段进行对比试验，探讨了木材在真空－过热蒸汽干燥中预阶段的工艺特性。结果表明：过热蒸汽干燥的预热阶段进行得非常迅速，同时其表面水分的凝结量也较以空气为介质时表面水分的凝结量大。