Re-establishment of suppressiveness to soil- and air-borne diseases by re-inoculation of soil microbial communities

The aim of this study was to investigate the potentials and limitations in restoring soil suppressiveness in disturbed soils. Soils from three sites in UK and Switzerland (STC, REC, THE) differing in their level of suppressiveness to soil-borne and air-borne diseases were γ-irradiated and this soil matrix was re-inoculated with 1% (w/w) of either parent native soil or native soil from the other sites (‘soil inoculum’). Suppressiveness to air-borne and soil-borne diseases was quantified by means of the host-pathogen systems Lepidium sativum (cress)-Pythium ultimum, an oomycete causing root rot and seedling damping-off, and Arabidopsis thaliana-Hyaloperonospora parasitica, an oomycete causing downy mildew. Soil microbial biomass, activity and community structure, as determined by phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) profiles, were measured in native, γ-irradiated, and re-inoculated soils. Both, L. sativum and A. thaliana were highly susceptible to the pathogens if grown on γ-irradiated soils. Re-inoculation completely restored suppressiveness of soils to the foliar pathogen H. parasitica, independently of soil matrix or soil inoculum, whereas suppressiveness to P. ultimum depended on the soil matrix and, to a lesser extent, on the soil inoculum. However, the soil with the highest inherent suppressiveness did not reach the initial level of suppressiveness after re-inoculation. In addition, native microbial populations as defined by microbial biomass, activity and community structure, could not be fully restored in re-inoculated soils. As for suppressiveness to P. ultimum, the soil matrix, rather than the source of soil inoculum was identified as the key factor for re-establishing the microbial community structure. Our data show that soils do not or only slowly fully recover from sterilisation by γ-irradiation, indicating that agricultural soil management practices such as soil fumigation or heat treatments frequently used in vegetable cropping should be avoided.     

Effect of sewage sludge on suppressiveness to soil-borne plant pathogens

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of sewage sludge on soil suppressiveness to the pathogens Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici on tomato, Sclerotium rolfsii on bean, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum on tomato, Rhizoctonia solani on radish, Pythium spp. on cucumber, and Ralstonia solanacearum on tomato. Soil samples were collected from an experimental corn field in which sewage sludge had been incorporated once a year, since 1999. Sludge from two sewage treatment stations in Brazil (Franca and Barueri, SP) were applied at the rates of one (1N), two (2N), four (4N) and eight (8N) times the N recommended doses for the corn crop. Soil suppressiveness was evaluated by methods using indicator host plants, baits and mycelial growth. There was no effect of sewage sludge on soil suppressiveness to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici in tomato plants. For S. rolfsii, reduction of the disease in bean was inversely proportional to the dose of Franca sludge. The incidence of dead plants, caused by S. sclerotiorum, was directly proportional to sludge doses applied. For R. solani and R. solanacearum, there was a linear trend with reduction in plant death in soils treated with increasing amounts of sludge from Franca. There was an increase in the pathogen community of Pythium spp., proportional to the amounts of sewage applied. The effects of sewage sludge varied depending on the pathogen, methodology applied and on the time interval between the sewage sludge incorporation and soil sampling.     

Suppression of damping-off of cucumber caused by Pythium ultimum with live cells and extracts of Serratia marcescens N4-5

Environmentally friendly control measures are needed for the soil-borne pathogen, Pythium ultimum. This pathogen can cause severe losses to field- and greenhouse-grown cucumber and other cucurbits. Live cells and ethanol extracts of cultures of the bacterium Serratia marcescens N4-5 provided significant suppression of damping-off of cucumber caused by P. ultimum when applied as a seed treatment. Live cells of this bacterium also suppressed damping-off caused by P. ultimum on cantaloupe, muskmelon, and pumpkin. Culture filtrates from strain N4-5 contained chitinase and protease activities while ethanol extracts contained the antibiotic prodigiosin, the surfactant serrawettin W1, and possibly other unidentified surfactants. Production of prodigiosin and serrawettin W1 was temperature-dependent, both compounds being detected in extracts from N4-5 grown at 28 °C but not in extracts from N4-5 grown at 37 °C. Ethanol extracts from strain N4-5 grown at 28 °C inhibited germination of sporangia and mycelial growth by P. ultimum in in vitro experiments. There was no in vitro inhibition of P. ultimum associated with ethanol extracts of strain N4-5 grown at 37 °C. Prodigiosin, purified from two consecutive thin-layer chromatography runs using different solvent systems, inhibited germination of sporangia and mycelial growth of P. ultimum. Another unidentified compound(s) also inhibited germination of sporangia but did not inhibit mycelial growth. There was no in vitro inhibition associated with serrawettin W1. These results demonstrate that live cells and cell-free extracts of S. marcescens N4-5 are effective for suppression of damping-off of cucumber caused by P. ultimum possibly due in part to the production of the antibiotic prodigiosin.     

Effect of successive cauliflower plantings and Rhizoctonia solani AG 2-1 inoculations on disease suppressiveness of a suppressive and a conducive soil

Disease suppressiveness against Rhizoctonia solani AG 2-1 in cauliflower was studied in two marine clay soils with a sandy loam texture. The soils had a different cropping history. One soil had a long-term (40 years) cauliflower history and was suppressive, the other soil was conducive and came from a pear orchard not having a cauliflower crop for at least 40 years. These two soils were subjected to five successive cropping cycles with cauliflower or remaining fallow in a greenhouse experiment. Soils were inoculated with R. solani AG 2-1 only once or before every crop. Disease decline occurred in all treatments cropped with cauliflower, either because of a decreased pathogen population or increased suppressiveness of the soil. Disease suppressiveness tests indicated that the conducive soil became suppressive after five subsequent cauliflower crops inoculated each cycle with R. solani AG 2-1. Suppressiveness of all treatments was measured in a seed germination test (pre-emergence damping-off) as well as by measuring the spread of R. solani symptoms in young plants (post-emergence damping-off). Results showed that suppressiveness was significantly stimulated by the successive R. solani inoculations; presence of the cauliflower crop had less effect. Suppressiveness was of biological origin, since it disappeared after sterilization of the soil. Moreover, suppressiveness could be translocated by adding 10% suppressive soil into sterilized soil. The suppressive soil contained higher numbers of culturable filamentous actinomycetes than the conducive soil, but treatments enhancing suppressiveness did not show an increased actinomycetes population. The suppressiveness of the soil samples did also not correlate with the number of pseudomonads. Moreover, no correlation was found with the presence of different mycoparasitic fungi, i.e. Volutella spp., Gliocladium roseum, Verticillium biguttatum and Trichoderma spp. The suppressive soil contained a high percentage of bacteria with a strong in vitro inhibition of R. solani. These bacteria were identified as Lysobacter (56%), Streptomyces (23%) and Pseudomonas (21%) spp. A potential role of Lysobacter in soil suppressiveness was confirmed by quantitative PCR detection (TaqMan), since a larger Lysobacter population was present in suppressive cauliflower soil than in conducive pear orchard soil. Our experiments showed that successive cauliflower plantings can cause a decline of the damage caused by R. solani AG 2-1, and that natural disease suppressiveness was most pronounced after subsequent inoculations with the pathogen. The mode of action of the decline is not yet understood, but antagonistic Lysobacter spp. are potential key organisms.     

Identifying the characteristics of organic soil amendments that suppress soilborne plant diseases

Application of organic amendments has been proposed as a strategy for the management of diseases caused by soilborne pathogens. However, inconsistent results seriously hinder their practical use. In this work we use an extensive data set of 2423 studies derived from 252 papers to explore this strategy. First, we assess the capability of a specific organic amendment to control different diseases; second, we investigate the influence of organic matter (OM) decomposition on disease suppressiveness; and third, we search for physical, chemical and biological parameters able to identify suppressive OM. OM was found to be consistently suppressive to different pathogens in only a few studies where a limited number of pathogens were tested. In the majority of studies a material suppressive to a pathogen was ineffective or even conducive to other pathogens, suggesting that OM suppressiveness is often pathogen-specific. OM decomposition in many studies (73%, n = 426) emerged as a crucial process affecting suppressiveness. During decomposition, disease suppression either increased, decreased, was unchanged or showed more complex responses, such as ‘hump-shaped’ dynamics. Peat suppressiveness generally decreased during decomposition, while responses of composts and crop residues were more complex. However, due to the many interactions of contributing factors (OM quality, microbial community composition, pathosystem tested and decomposition time), it was difficult to identify specific predictors of disease suppression. Among the 81 parameters analysed, only some of the 643 correlations showed a consistent relationship with disease suppression. The response of pathogen populations to OM amendments was a reliable feature only for some organic matter types (e.g. crop residues and organic wastes with C-to-N ratio lower than ∼15) and for pathogens with a limited saprophytic ability (e.g., Thielaviopsis basicola and Verticillium dahliae). Instead, population responses of the pathogenic fungi Phytophthora spp., Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium spp. appeared unrelated to disease suppression. Overall, enzymatic and microbiological parameters, rather than chemical ones, were much more informative for predicting suppressiveness. The most useful features were FDA activity, substrate respiration, microbial biomass, total culturable bacteria, fluorescent pseudomonads and Trichoderma populations. We conclude that the integration of different parameters (e.g. FDA hydrolysis and chemical composition by ¹³C NMR) may be a promising approach for identification of suppressive amendments.     

Soil suppressiveness and functional diversity of the soil microflora in organic farming systems

Arable fields of 10 organic farms from different locations in The Netherlands were sampled in three subsequent years. The soil samples were analysed for disease suppressiveness against Rhizoctonia solani AG2.2IIIB in sugar beet, Streptomyces scabies in radish and Verticillium longisporum in oilseed rape. In addition, a variety of microbial, chemical and physical soil characteristics were assessed. All data were correlated by multiple regression and multivariate analyses with the objective to find correlations between soil suppressiveness and biotic or abiotic soil characteristics. Significant differences in soil suppressiveness were found between the fields for all three diseases. Multiple regression indicated a significant correlation between suppressiveness against Rhizoctonia and the number of antagonistic Lysobacter spp., as well as with % active fungi and bacterial diversity. Grass-clover stimulated Rhizoctonia suppression as well as the presence of antagonistic Lysobacter spp. (mainly L. antibioticus and L. gummosus) in clay soils. Streptomyces suppression correlated with the number of antagonistic Streptomyces spp., % of active fungi and bacterial population size. The presence of antagonistic Streptomyces spp. correlated with a high fungal/bacterial biomass ratio. Verticillium suppression was only measured in 2004 and 2005, due to the inconsistent suppressiveness along the years. Nevertheless, a significant correlation with pH, potential nitrogen mineralization and bacterial biomass was found. Bacterial and fungal PCR-denaturing gel electrophoresis fingerprinting of bacterial and fungal communities, in general, did not significantly correlate with disease suppression. Highly significant explanatory factors of the composition of the dominating bacterial and fungal populations were % lutum, pH, C/N quotient, biomass and growth rate of bacteria. Additionally, the % of organic matter and years of organic farming were explaining significantly the composition of the bacterial population.Thus, significant correlations between several soil characteristics and suppressiveness of different soil-borne pathogens were found. For two of the three pathogens, suppression correlated with biotic soil characteristics combined with the presence of specific bacterial antagonists. Probably the soil suppressiveness measured in the organic fields is a combined effect of general and specific disease suppression.     

Suppressiveness of 18 composts against 7 pathosystems: Variability in pathogen response

Compost is often reported as a substrate that is able to suppress soilborne plant pathogens, but suppression varies according to the type of compost and pathosystem. Reports often deal with a single pathogen while in reality crops are attacked by multiple plant pathogens. The goal of the present study was to evaluate the disease suppression ability of a wide range of composts for a range of plant pathogens. This study was conducted by a consortium of researchers from several European countries. Composts originated from different countries and source materials including green and yard waste, straw, bark, biowaste and municipal sewage. Suppressiveness of compost-amended (20% vol./vol.) peat-based potting soil was determined against Verticillium dahliae on eggplant, Rhizoctonia solani on cauliflower, Phytophthora nicotianae on tomato, Phytophthora cinnamomi on lupin and Cylindrocladium spathiphylli on Spathiphyllum sp., and of compost-amended loamy soil (20% vol./vol.) against R. solani on Pinus sylvestris and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lini on flax. From the 120 bioassays involving 18 composts and 7 pathosystems, significant disease suppression was found in 54% of the cases while only 3% of the cases showed significant disease enhancement. Pathogens were affected differently by the composts. In general, prediction of disease suppression was better when parameters derived from the compost mixes were used rather than those derived from the pure composts. Regression analyses of disease suppression of the individual pathogens with parameters of compost-amended peat-based mixes revealed the following groupings: (1) competition-sensitive: F. oxysporum and R. solani/cauliflower; (2) rhizosphere-affected: V. dahliae; (3) pH-related: P. nicotianae; and (4) specific/unknown: R. solani/pine, P. cinnamomi and C. spathiphylli. It was concluded that application of compost has in general a positive or no effect on disease suppression, and only rarely a disease stimulating effect.     

Storage method affects disease suppression of flax wilt induced by composts

Compost can have a disease suppressive effect, but compost research is constrained by the fact that repetition of experiments with a similar batch of compost is impossible, since storage affects the organic material including the microbial communities. The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that differential changes in microbial community structure and associated microbial activities after various storage methods (drying, freezing and cooling) lead to differential changes in the disease suppressive ability of compost material with respect to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lini induced by mixes of composts with peat substrate (20/80%, vol./vol.). A significant (P<0.0001) storage method × compost interaction was found with respect to suppression of Fusarium wilt of flax, indicating that the effect of storage type on disease suppression is compost-dependent. For seven composts storage had no (13 cases) or a significantly positive effect (eight cases) on disease suppression and for 1 compost there was a significant negative effect of storage on disease suppression. Significant changes in microbial activity and 16S-rDNA DGGE banding patterns of the composts were observed as a result of all tested ways of storage and these changes could be related to changes in disease suppression: relatively strong changes in microbial activity and bacterial composition due to storage had a relatively strong effect on disease suppression. The cool storage treatment (4 °C) resulted in the least deviation in disease suppression from the fresh compost, although the freezing treatment gave the most reliable results with the lowest standard deviation.     

Response of A-genome cotton germplasm to the seedling disease pathogens,Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium ultimum

Summary Approximately two hundred A-genome cotton (Gossypium arboreum L. and G. herbaceum L.) accessions were evaluated for resistance to the seedling disease pathogens Rhizoctonia solani Kühn [Thanatephorus cucumeris (A. B. Frank) Donk], and Pythium ultimum Trow. Susceptibility rating was based on a scale of 1 to 6 where 1 = no symptoms and 6 = dead. Variation was found among A-genome accessions in response to R. solani and P. ultimum, but none were highly resistant to these pathogens. As a group, the A-genome cottons were more susceptible to the pathogens than the G. hirsutum control.Abbreviations STV-A G. hirsutum Stoneville 506 with agar only - STV-NP G. hirsutum Stoneville 506 with non-pathogenic isolate - STV-P G. hirsutum Stoneville 506 with pathogenic isolate - A₁ G. herbaceum - A₂ G. arboreum - GRIN Genetic Resources Information Network     

Green manure effects on soil quality in relation to suppression of Verticillium wilt of potatoes

Verticillium dahliae is a major, persistent pathogen in soil but conventional control is becoming more difficult because of increasing costs and environmental impacts of pesticides. Organic amendments can naturally suppress plant diseases, but to be reliable, mechanisms and suppressive soil indicators need to be understood. Consequently, a 3 × 3 factorial experiment was conducted in two separate fields over 2 years with three green manure types (Austrian winter pea, Pisum sativum L.; broccoli Brassica oleracea L.; or Sudan grass, Sorghum vulgare), incorporated at three rates (6, 12, or 24 Mg ha⁻¹ dry biomass). The relationship between soil chemical and microbiological properties and suppression of Verticillium wilt of potato was investigated using correlation and stepwise multiple-linear-regression (MLR) analysis. V. dahliae inoculum density (ID) were positively correlated with relative area under the senescence progress curve (RAUSPC) in both 2002 and 2003. In 2002, in addition to ID, low soil pH, low Ca, high K, high Mg, high total soil C, and low arylsulfatase activity were associated with low RAUSPC. Soil pH, Ca, K, and Mg were not impacted by green manure treatments, but rather indicated a pre-existing soil gradient at the 2002 site. In 2003, in addition to ID, high values of NO₃ ⁻−N, total C, fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis (FDA), microbial respiration, and microbial biomass C were associated with low RAUSPC. These six factors were affected by green manure treatments. The best MLR model included terms for ID, FDA, and soil pH, and accounted for 70% of the variability in RAUSPC.     

Resource availability, matrix quality, microclimate, and spatial pattern as predictors of patch use by the Karner blue butterfly

Determination of which aspects of habitat quality and habitat spatial arrangement best account for variation in a species’ distribution can guide management for organisms such as the Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis), a federally endangered subspecies inhabiting savannas of Midwest and Eastern United States. We examined the extent to which three sets of predictors, (1) larval host plant (Lupinus perennis, wild lupine) availability, (2) characteristics of the matrix surrounding host plant patches, and (3) factors affecting a patch’s thermal environment, accounted for variation in lupine patch use by Karner blues at Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, Indiana and Fort McCoy, Wisconsin, USA. Each predictor set accounted for 7-13% of variation in patch occupancy by Karner blues at both sites and in larval feeding activity among patches at Indiana Dunes. Patch area, an indicator of host plant availability, was an exception, accounting for 30% of variation in patch occupancy at Indiana Dunes. Spatially structured patterns of patch use across the landscape accounted for 9-16% of variation in patch use and explained more variation in larval feeding activity than did spatial autocorrelation between neighboring patches. Because of this broader spatial trend across sites, a given management action may be more effective in promoting patch use in some portions of the landscape than in others. Spatial trend, resource availability, matrix quality, and microclimate, in general, accounted for similar amounts of variation in patch use and each should be incorporated into habitat management planning for the Karner blue butterfly.     

Using habitat models to determine conservation priorities for pond-breeding amphibians in a privately-owned landscape of northern Idaho, USA

As rural landscapes experience increasing levels of residential development, the persistence of species that rely on them will depend on informed planning and management decisions. An understanding of habitat requirements is essential for setting priorities and developing landscape-level plans for the survival of these species. In many temperate rural landscapes, artificially created ponds may be the only wetlands available for aquatic reproduction by amphibians. The introduction of non-native fish into these ponds reduces survival and prohibits successful reproduction of many native pond-breeding amphibians. We surveyed 105 randomly selected wetlands in a primarily privately-owned, rural landscape in north Idaho, USA, for pond-breeding amphibian larvae in 2004 and 2005. We used an information theoretic multimodel inference and an algorithmic (random forests) approach to model habitat for each species based on local and landscape characteristics. We also used a mail survey to quantify how landowners value fish in their wetlands and their plans for future wetland development and fish stocking. Sixty-seven percent of pond owners reported that fishing in their pond was at least slightly important to them and 36% of owners indicated that they were at least 50% likely to add fish to their ponds in the next 5-10 years. Landscape change predictions for this area indicate that forests will become more open due to thinning; habitat models indicated that this is likely to be detrimental to long-toed salamanders and beneficial to Pacific treefrogs. Habitat models also indicate that Columbia spotted frog breeding sites consist of wetlands on flat ground with high solar insolation and that this species is sensitive to nearby development, indicating that as this landscape becomes further developed, this species may require habitat protection for persistence.     

Response of soil microbial biomass dynamics to quality of plant materials with emphasis on P availability

Soil microbial biomass is a major sink and source of plant available P and transformer of soil organic P. The dynamics of microbial biomass P (B_P) and C (B_C) and resin extractable P (P_ex) in a sandy loam soil (Kandic Rhodustalf) after amending with plant materials of diverse quality were examined in a laboratory incubation study. Quality variables of the plant materials were described by the proportion of dry matter as total P, total N, lignin (LIG), and soluble polyphenolics (Pp). The materials were added to the soil at a rate equivalent to 10 t ha⁻¹ (dry weight) and kept at 50% field moisture capacity and 25 °C. Included was an unamended control soil. During incubation of up to 56 d, soil samples were periodically analyzed for P_ex, B_P and B_C. Quality variables affecting P_ex, B_P, B_C and B_P-to-B_C ratio were total P, total N, N-to-P and C-to-P ratios. Total P appeared to be the most important quality factor affecting P_ex, B_P, B_C and B_P-to-B_C ratio. There was no consistent significant correlation between P_ex and B_P or between B_P and B_C. This was attributed to the complexity of the dynamics of P_ex and B_P pools and the absence of a significant microbial turnover due to the short incubation periods assessed in the study. By virtue of the high P content and resulting in a low B_P-to-B_C ratio, leaves of the shrubby non-legume Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsley) A. Gray, had a distinct advantage of replenishing P_ex in the short-term and yet maintain a high potential to release P through microbial turnover. The tree legume Sesbania sesban, on the other hand, resulted in a low B_P-to-B_C ratio but also had a low P content and may be useful for the build up of soil organic matter (SOM) and P release in the long term. Exploiting plant materials with quality variables exhibited by T. diversifolia might create the potentials for fast replenishment of solution P as well as improving SOM.     

Novel strains of nodulating Burkholderia have a role in nitrogen fixation with papilionoid herbaceous legumes adapted to acid, infertile soils

We investigated the taxonomic position and symbiotic capabilities of two root-nodule bacterial strains isolated from the South African herbaceous, papilionoid legume Rhynchosia ferulifolia. The 16S rRNA gene sequence of the two strains was determined along with intragenic sequences of nodA and nifH, together with their symbiotic capabilities when inoculated onto the papilionoid legumes R. ferulifolia, Rhynchosia caribaea, Rhynchosia minima and Macroptilium atropurpureum (Siratro). Burkholderia phymatum STM815^T, Cupriavidus taiwanensis LMG 19424^T and root-nodule bacteria isolated from R. minima and Rhynchosia totta were included in the study. Root-nodule bacteria isolated from R. ferulifolia, WSM3937 and WSM3930, belong to the genus Burkholderia and are most closely related to Burkholderia terricola (98.8% similarity). The phylogenetic analysis of nodA and nifH revealed substantial similarity of the novel strains with Burkholderia tuberum STM678^T, a β-rhizobium also originated from South Africa, and only a distant relationship with South American Mimosa-nodulating β-rhizobia. R. ferulifolia was effectively nodulated only by Burkholderia sp. WSM3937 and WSM3930 and not by bradyrhizobia isolated from Rhynchosia minima and Rhynchosia totta or STM815 and LMG 19924. Nodules induced by the novel strains were determinate and hosted well organized symbiosomes within infected cells. In this study we describe a new symbiotic N-fixing relationship between Burkholderia sp. and the South African legume R. ferulifolia. This is the first report of N-fixation between β-rhizobia and an herbaceous, papilionoid legume from which the strains were originally isolated. The level of N-fixation in this symbiosis approached that achieved by effectively nodulated Medicago sativa and suggests that the β-rhizobia may have a role in N-fixation in agricultural systems.     

Combining experimentation and modelling to estimate primary and secondary infections of take-all disease of wheat

Primary and secondary infections are important processes in the epidemiology of plant diseases but can be difficult to quantify experimentally as they often occur at the same time. This problem is all the more challenging in the case of soil-borne diseases, as most processes are hidden in the soil and destructive sampling is time-consuming and makes it difficult to obtain enough observations of disease progress. Here we show how a combination of experimentation and modelling can be used in order to obtain parameters for primary and secondary infections for take-all disease of wheat. First, an experiment with one infected seedling and varying numbers of target seedlings allowed us to estimate the probability of secondary infection by growth of the mycelium through the soil and by growth via the crown of the plant. Several equations were tested for the contact term between susceptible and infectious roots. Secondly, an experiment with primary inoculum placed at different depths allowed us to estimate the probability of primary infection, taking into account secondary infections and the time needed for the roots to reach inoculum depth. In both experiments, the use of simple models was effective in isolating the desired effect from uncontrollable effects occurring in the soil. The probability of secondary infection through the crown was higher than the probability of infection through soil, and the contact term following the mass action or Reed-Frost equation gave a better fit to the data than the other equations tested. The probability of primary infection was higher when inoculum was placed just below the soil surface than when it was placed deeper in the soil.     

Microbial community development in the rhizosphere of apple trees at a replant disease site

Apple replant disease (ARD) is a complex syndrome that affects young trees in replanted orchard sites causing necrotic lesions on feeder roots, stunted tree growth and reduced cumulative yields. Use of ARD-tolerant rootstocks is an emerging control strategy. We studied the bacterial, fungal, and oomycetes populations in the rhizosphere of five rootstock cultivars (M.7, M.26, G.16, G.30 and CG.6210) planted into the old tree row or grass lanes of a previous orchard in Ithaca, NY, to better understand the role of rhizosphere microbial communities in the prevalence and control of ARD. The possible involvement of antagonistic Pseudomonas species, Pythium spp., Phytophthora spp. and rhizosphere cyanide concentrations in ARD were also examined. The rootstocks M.7, M.26 and G.16 were susceptible to ARD, while G.30 and CG.6210 were more tolerant. Tree growth on the rootstocks M.7, M.26 and G.16 was reduced by 10% when planted in the old tree rows, but this did not significantly reduce yields in the first fruiting year. The susceptible rootstocks, M.7 and M.26, supported higher densities of culturable rhizosphere fungi and bacteria than G.16, G.30 and CG.6210. Over 2 years, microbial densities were highest in July, lower in May and lowest in September. The composition of bacterial and fungal communities in the rhizosphere was highly variable and changed over seasons and years, as assessed by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analyses. Initial differences in fungal rhizosphere communities between the two planting positions converged 2 years after the trees were replanted. In contrast, the bacterial rhizosphere community composition still differed significantly between the two planting positions 3 years after the orchard was replanted. The bacterial and fungal rhizosphere community compositions of susceptible rootstocks, M.7 and M.26, differed from those of the tolerant rootstocks, G.30 and CG.6210; G.16, differed from all the other rootstocks. The observed effects of rootstocks, planting positions and time on microbial community composition were small relative to the high variability observed overall. Pythium spp. and Phytophthora spp. infestations were high and similar for all rootstocks and planting positions. Neither potentially antagonistic Pseudomonas nor rhizosphere cyanide concentrations appeared to be involved in the ARD-complex at the studied site. Avoiding replanting into the old tree rows coupled with use of tolerant rootstocks appear to be the best strategies for reducing ARD in replanted orchards. Changes in rhizosphere microbial communities are among the many factors that contribute to improved tree growth when these management strategies are used.     

Dispersal of breeding, adult male Phocarctos hookeri: Implications for disease transmission, population management and species recovery

Dispersal impacts on a range of population parameters making it a key piece of information in species conservation. Despite its importance, dispersal is poorly characterized for many species: pinnipeds are no exception. Understanding dispersal patterns of the New Zealand sea lion Phocarctos hookeri is crucial in the conservation management of the species as its recovery to a non-threatened status hinges on range recolonisation. In this study, we examined the movements of breeding adult male New Zealand sea lions within and following the breeding season of the 2002/03 austral summer using a novel multi colony approach. Based on resightings of 202 individually identifiable adult males, we found (1) a previously unappreciated, high level of dispersal by adult territorial males between breeding colonies during the pupping period and (2) that breeding males disperse to the extremes of the species’ range at the end of female oestrous. Our findings are contrary to the current paradigm of otariid breeding behaviour, which is believed to consist of prolonged, uninterrupted male territoriality based on intense male-male competition and sustained fasting. Adult male dispersal between colonies and across the species range has important implications for adult males as vectors of disease in three recent epizootics, species management and species recovery via recolonisation as males are apparently remaining part of a localized, vulnerable breeding population.     

青皮竹地上部营养元素的吸收、积累和分配特性研究

【目的】青皮竹(Bambusa textilis)是重要的笋材两用丛生竹之一,具有一次造林成功即可永续利用、长期获益的特点,但对青皮竹的营养特性知之甚少。本文拟研究青皮竹地上部营养元素的吸收、积累和分配特性,为青皮竹的养分管理提供基础数据,以指导青皮竹的科学施肥工作。【方法】本研究于2013年1月,在青皮竹中心产区广东省广宁县,选择林分类型、组成、结构、生长状况和立地条件等具有代表性的青皮竹林分4块,建立面积为20 m×20 m的标准地。对每块标准地内的竹子按不同年龄进行每株检尺,计算出不同年龄竹子的平均胸径,选取与平均胸径一致的竹子作为标准株,砍伐不同年龄标准株各1株,并测量其株高。将不同标准株分叶、枝、秆,野外称出各器官鲜重。枝、秆分上、中、下三个部位取样组成混合样品,用于分析不同年龄(1 3 a)和不同器官(叶、枝、秆)的植株样品氮(N)、磷(P)、钾(K)、钙(Ca)、镁(Mg)、铁(Fe)、锰(Mn)、锌(Zn)和铜(Cu)等9种营养元素含量。【结果】青皮竹各器官中营养元素含量大小次序表现为Cu、Zn元素为枝叶秆,其他7种元素均表现为叶枝秆。各器官元素的含量均以氮元素最高,而以Cu含量最低。青皮竹地上部营养元素积累量为489.96kg/hm2,不同器官营养元素积累量的大小顺序为秆(331.05 kg/hm2)叶(101.14 kg/hm2)枝(57.77 kg/hm2),营养元素的积累量大小顺序为NKPCaMgFeMnZnCu。各器官营养元素积累量最多的是氮,为219.59 kg/hm2,占地上部积累量的44.82%,表明青皮竹具有较强的氮吸收能力。青皮竹地上部各器官营养元素的分配率大小顺序总体表现为秆(67.57%)叶(20.64%)枝(11.79%)。【结论】营养元素吸收量反映了植物对土壤养分需求和利用状况。青皮竹每生产1 t干物质所需5种大量营养元素为10.00 kg,以氮的吸收最多,其累积吸收量为219.59 kg/hm2,占地上部积累量的44.82%。因此,在青皮竹生产过程中应适当增施氮肥,可以促进青皮竹特别是经济部位茎秆的生长。     

水稻与美人蕉间作对水稻生长、病虫害发生及产量的影响

间作是一类提高农田生物多样性、增加农业生态经济效益的农田种植模式。本研究通过一年两季的田间试验,探讨了水稻与美人蕉间作对水稻生长性状、病虫害防控以及产量的影响。结果表明:与水稻单作相比,水稻与美人蕉间作在早稻分蘖末期、抽穗期降低了水稻株高,而在早稻抽穗期、成熟期及晚稻分蘖末期和成熟期提高了水稻叶片的叶绿素含量;间作下水稻分蘖数明显提高,在早稻分蘖末期、抽穗期和晚稻成熟期水稻分蘖数分别提高25.20%、11.20%和26.01%。在病虫害防控方面,水稻与美人蕉间作降低了纹枯病和稻纵卷叶螟的发生,其中在早稻分蘖中期、末期以及晚稻分蘖末期、抽穗期纹枯病的病情指数分别显著降低35.61%、19.55%、24.83%和16.05%;在晚稻分蘖中期和末期,稻纵卷叶螟卷叶率显著降低46.35%和60.31%;水稻与美人蕉间作显著提高了水稻单位面积产量,增幅达11.16%。研究表明,水稻与美人蕉间作是一种能促进水稻生长、降低水稻病虫害、提高水稻产量和经济效益的新型生态种植模式。