Sources and rates of nitrous oxide emissions from grazed grassland after application of N-labelled mineral fertilizer and slurry

Nitrogen (N) fertilizer application and grazing are known to induce nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from grassland soils. In a field study, general information on rates of N₂O emission, the effect of cattle grazing and the type (mineral fertilizer, cattle slurry) and amount of N supply on the flux of N₂O from a sandy soil were investigated. N₂O emissions from permanent grassland managed as a mixed system (two cuts followed by two grazing cycles) were monitored over 11 months during 2001-2002 in northern Germany using the closed chamber method. The field experiment consisted of four regionally relevant fertilizer combinations, i.e. two mineral N application rates (0 and 100 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) and two slurry levels (0 and 74 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹).Mean cumulative N₂O-N loss was 3.0 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, and the cumulative ¹⁵N-labelled N₂O emissions varied from 0.03% to 0.19% of the ¹⁵N applied. ¹⁵N labelling indicated that more N₂O was emitted from mineral N than from slurry treated plots, and in all treatments the soil N pool was always clearly the major source of N₂O. Regarding the total cumulative N₂O losses, differences among treatments were not significant, which was caused by: (i) a high variance in emissions during and after cattle grazing due to the random distribution of excrements and by (ii) high N₂ fixation of white clover in the 0 kg N ha⁻¹ treatments, which resulted in similar N status of all treatments. However before grazing started, treatments showed significant differences. After cattle grazing in summer, N₂O emission rates were higher than around the time of spring fertilizer application, or in winter. Grazing resulted in N₂O flux rates up to 489 μg N₂O-N m⁻² h⁻¹ and the grazing period contributed 31-57% to the cumulative N₂O emission. During freeze-thaw cycles in winter (December-February) N₂O emission rates of up to 147 μg N₂O-N m⁻² h⁻¹ were measured, which contributed up to 26% to the annual N₂O flux. The results suggest that N fertilizer application and grazing caused only short-term increases of N₂O flux rates whereas the major share of annual N₂O emission emitted from the soil N pool. The significantly increased N₂O fluxes during freeze-thaw cycles show the importance of emission events in winter which need to be covered by measurements for obtaining reliable estimates of annual N₂O emissions.     

Effects of rate and depth of fertilizer application on emission of nitrous oxide from soil fertilized with anhydrous ammonia

Summary Field studies to determine the effect of different rates of fertilization on emission of nitrous oxide (N₂O) from soil fertilized with anhydrous ammonia showed that the fertilizer-induced emission of N₂O-N in 116 days increased from 1.22 to 4.09 kg ha^–1 as the rate of anhydrous ammonia N application was increased from 75 to 450 kg ha^–1. When expressed as a percentage of the N applied, the fertilizer-induced emission of N₂O-N in 116 days decreased from 1.6% to 0.9% as the rate of fertilizer N application was increased from 75 to 450 kg N ha^–1. The data obtained showed that a 100% increase in the rate of application of anhydrous ammonia led to about a 60% increase in the fertilizer-induced emission of N₂O.Field studies to determine the effect of depth of fertilizer injection on emission of N₂O from soil fertilized with anhydrous ammonia showed that the emission of N₂O-N in 156 days induced by injection of 112 kg anhydrous ammonia N ha^–1 at a depth of 30 cm was 107% and 21 % greater than those induced by injection of the same amount of N at depths of 10 cm and 20 cm, respectively. The effect of depth of application of anhydrous ammonia on emission of N₂O was less when this fertilizer was applied at a rate of 225 kg N ha^–1.     

Compared effects of long-term pig slurry applications and mineral fertilization on soil denitrification and its end products (N2O, N2)

The long-term (9 years) effect of pig slurry applications vs mineral fertilization on denitrifying activity, N₂O production and soil organic carbon (C) (extractable C, microbial biomass C and total organic C) was compared at three soil depths of adjacent plots. The denitrifying activities were measured on undisturbed soil cores and on sieved soil samples with acetylene method to estimate denitrification rates under field or potential conditions. Pig slurry applications had a moderate impact on the C pools. Total organic C was increased by +6.5% and microbial biomass C by ≥25%. The potential denitrifying activity on soil suspension was stimulated (×1.8, P<0.05) 12 days after the last slurry application. This stimulation was still apparent, but not significant, 10 months later and, according to both methods of denitrifying activity measurement (r ²=0.916, P<0.01 on sieved soil; r ²=0.845, P<0.001 on soil cores), was associated with an increase in microbial biomass C above a threshold of about 105 mg kg⁻¹. The effect of pig slurry on denitrification and N₂O reduction rates was detected on the surface layer (0–20 cm) only. However, no pig slurry effect could be detected on soil cores at field conditions or after NO₃ ⁻ enrichments at 20°C. Although the potential denitrifying activity in sieved soil samples was stimulated, the N₂O production was lower (P<0.03) in the plot fertilized with pig slurry, indicating a lower N₂O/(N₂O + N₂) ratio of the released gases. The pig-slurry-fertilized plot also showed a higher N₂O reduction activity, which is coherent with the lower N₂O production in anaerobiosis.     

Microbial processes and the site of N2O production in a temperate grassland soil

To understand nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from terrestrial ecosystems it is necessary to understand the processes leading to N₂O production. Here, for the first time, results are presented which identify in situ the processes of N₂O production in a temperate grassland soil. A small portion of the nitrogen (N) applied in the summer to the grassland soil was rapidly transported below the main rooting zone (>20 cm) and resulted in large N₂O productions at depths of 20-50 cm. Preferential pathways must have been responsible for this movement because the soil conditions were not conducive to leaching by piston flow. The N₂O was entirely produced by nitrate (NO₃⁻) reduction which was surprising because the bulk soil was aerobic. Therefore, reduction processes can operate during times of the year when it is least expected and cause large N₂O concentrations deep in the soil profile.     

有机无机肥配施对酸性菜地土壤硝化作用的影响

通过室内培养和田间试验, 研究了有机无机肥配施对酸性菜地土硝化作用的影响。培养试验条件为60%土壤最大持水量和25 ℃。 结果表明,土壤硝化作用模式为指数方程,延滞期10天。与纯化肥处理（NPK）相比,鲜猪粪配施无机肥（FPM+NPK）和猪粪堆肥配施无机肥（CPM+NPK）均能降低土壤硝化势和氨氧化潜势,猪粪堆肥配施无机肥还能增加土壤微生物量碳、 氮。鲜猪粪配施无机肥和猪粪堆肥配施无机肥处理在硝化培养和田间试验期间N2O释放量均没有差异,但硝化培养期间鲜猪粪配施无机肥的N2O释放量显著低于纯化肥处理,田间试验期间猪粪堆肥配施无机肥的N2O释放量显著低于纯化肥处理。培养试验结束后的土壤pH值与土壤硝化势间,以及硝化培养期间N2O累积释放量与土壤硝化势间均存在显著正相关关系。本研究表明, 有机无机肥配施显著影响土壤硝化作用以及硝化培养期间和田间N2O释放。     

CH4 oxidation and emissions of CH4 and N2O from Lolium perenne swards under elevated atmospheric CO2

Emissions of N₂O and CH₄ and CH₄ oxidation rates were measured from Lolium perenne swards in a short-term study under ambient (36 Pa) and elevated (60 Pa) atmospheric CO₂ at the Free Air Carbon dioxide Enrichment experiment, Eschikon, Switzerland. Elevated pCO₂ increased (P<0.05) N₂O emissions from high N fertilised (11.2 g N m⁻²) swards by 69%, but had no significant effect on net emissions of CH₄. Application of ¹³C-CH₄ (11 μl l⁻¹; 11 at.% excess ¹³C) to closed chamber headspaces in microplots enabled determination of rates of ¹³C-CH₄ oxidation even when net CH₄ fluxes from main plots were positive. We found a significant interaction between fertiliser application rate and atmospheric pCO₂ on ¹³C-CH₄ oxidation rates that was attributed to differences in gross nitrification rates and C and N availability. CH₄ oxidation was slower and thought to be temporarily inhibited in the high N ambient pCO₂ sward. The most rapid CH₄ oxidation of 14.6 μg ¹³C-CH₄ m⁻² h⁻¹ was measured in the high fertilised elevated pCO₂ sward, and we concluded that either elevated pCO₂ had a stimulatory effect on CH₄ oxidation or inhibition of oxidation following fertiliser application was lowered under elevated pCO₂. Application of ¹⁴NH₄¹⁵NO₃ and ¹⁵NH₄¹⁵NO₃ (10 at.% excess ¹⁵N) to different replicates enabled determination of the respective contributions of nitrification and denitrification to N₂O emissions. Inhibition of CH₄ oxidation in the high fertilised ambient pCO₂ sward, due to competition between NH₃ and CH₄ for methane monooxygenase enzymes or toxic effects of NH₂OH or NO₂⁻ produced during nitrification, was hypothesised to increase gross nitrification (12.0 mg N kg dry soil⁻¹) and N₂O emissions during nitrification (327 mg ¹⁵N-N₂O m⁻² over 11 d). Our results indicate that increasing atmospheric concentrations of CO₂ may increase emissions of N₂O by denitrification, lower nitrification rates and either increase or decrease the ability of soil to act as a sink for atmospheric CH₄ depending on fertiliser management.     

有机无机肥配施对玉米-豇豆种植系统土壤N2O排放的影响

在等施氮量条件下,比较有机肥与无机肥施用后旱地玉米-豇豆复种系统土壤硝化与反硝化作用、N_2O排放与作物产量的变化,有助于正确认识肥料施用对N_2O排放的影响,为制定大田合理的丰产减排措施提供理论依据。本研究通过田间试验,利用静态箱技术和BaPS气压过程分离技术研究了不同肥料类型处理(无机肥、有机肥、有机无机肥配施)下玉米-豇豆种植系统土壤N_2O排放、硝化与反硝化作用的变化特征。结果表明:1)相对于单施无机肥或有机肥,有机无机肥配施可显著降低土壤硝化作用速率;在玉米生长季,有机无机肥配施处理平均土壤硝化作用速率分别比化肥和有机肥处理显著降低了28.74%和13.96%,豇豆生长季显著降低了24.66%和13.28%。土壤反硝化作用速率在各施肥处理间差异不显著。2)有机无机肥配施显著降低土壤N_2O排放;在玉米生长季,有机无机肥配施处理分别比无机肥处理和有机肥处理显著降低33.44%和32.29%,在豇豆生长季分别显著降低27.00%和15.14%。3)相关分析表明,土壤N_2O排放与硝化作用速率呈极显著相关,而与反硝化作用速率呈不显著相关。4)有机无机配施处理玉米和豇豆产量最高。因此,有机无机肥配施能有效降低玉米-豇豆系统土壤N_2O排放和提高作物产量,是一项丰产低N_2O排放的施肥技术,但长期有机无机肥配施对土壤N_2O排放和作物产量的影响还需要进一步研究。     

Influence of water table level and soil properties on emissions of greenhouse gases from cultivated peat soil

A lysimeter method using undisturbed soil columns was used to investigate the effect of water table depth and soil properties on soil organic matter decomposition and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from cultivated peat soils. The study was carried out using cultivated organic soils from two locations in Sweden: Örke, a typical cultivated fen peat with low pH and high organic matter content and Majnegården, a more uncommon fen peat type with high pH and low organic matter content. Even though carbon and nitrogen contents differ greatly between the sites, carbon and nitrogen density are quite similar. A drilling method with minimal soil disturbance was used to collect 12 undisturbed soil monoliths (50 cm high, Ø29.5 cm) per site. They were sown with ryegrass (Lolium perenne) after the original vegetation was removed. The lysimeter design allowed the introduction of water at depth so as to maintain a constant water table at either 40 cm or 80 cm below the soil surface. CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O emissions from the lysimeters were measured weekly and complemented with incubation experiments with small undisturbed soil cores subjected to different tensions (5, 40, 80 and 600 cm water column). CO₂ emissions were greater from the treatment with the high water table level (40 cm) compared with the low level (80 cm). N₂O emissions peaked in springtime and CH₄ emissions were very low or negative. Estimated GHG emissions during one year were between 2.70 and 3.55 kg CO₂ equivalents m⁻². The results from the incubation experiment were in agreement with emissions results from the lysimeter experiments. We attribute the observed differences in GHG emissions between the soils to the contrasting dry matter liability and soil physical properties. The properties of the different soil layers will determine the effect of water table regulation. Lowering the water table without exposing new layers with easily decomposable material would have a limited effect on emission rates.     

Mitigating nitrous oxide emissions from a maize-cropping black soil in northeast China by a combination of reducing chemical N fertilizer application and applying manure in autumn

Abstract

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from agricultural soils, mainly caused by chemical nitrogen (N) fertilizer inputs, are major sources of N₂O in Chinese terrestrial ecosystems. Thus, attempts to reduce N₂O emissions from agricultural soils by optimizing N applications are receiving increasing attention. Further, organic fertilizers are being increasingly used in China to improve crop production/quality and prevent or reduce soil degradation. However, organic and chemical fertilizers are often both applied in spring in northeast China, which promotes N₂O emissions and may be sub-optimal. Therefore, we hypothesized that reducing applications of chemical fertilizer N and applying manure in autumn could be an effective strategy for mitigating N₂O emissions from cropped soils in the region. To test this hypothesis, we established a field trial to investigate the effects of different combinations of chemical N fertilizer applications and animal manure in autumn on both N₂O emissions and maize (Zea mays L.) grain yields in northeast China. The treatments, expressed as NxMy (where Nx and My denote the total amounts of chemical fertilizer nitrogen (N) and manure (M) applied in kg N ha^?1 and m³ M ha^?1, respectively), were N₀M₀, N₂₃₀M₀, N₂₇₀M₁₂, N₂₃₀M₁₅, N₃₂₀M₁₈ in 2010 and N₀M₀, N₂₃₀M₀, N₂₀₀M₁₂, N₂₀₀M₁₅, N₂₈₀M₁₈ in 2011. Measurements of the resulting N₂O emissions showed that pulse fluxes occurred after each chemical N fertilizer application, but not after manure inputs in autumn or during soil-thawing periods in the following spring. Emission factors for the chemical fertilizer N were on average 1.07% (1.00?1.10%) and 1.14% (0.49?1.83%) in 2010 and 2011, respectively. Furthermore, by comparing the nine pairs of fertilization treatments, the relative increase in cumulative nitrous oxide-nitrogen (N₂O-N) emissions was found to be proportional to the relative increase in urea application, but independent of the amount of autumn-applied manure. These findings imply that N₂O emissions from fertilized agricultural soils in northeast China could be mitigated by supplying manure in the autumn and reducing the total amount of chemical N fertilizer applied in the following year. Although no significant difference in maize grain yield was found among the fertilization treatments, the grain yield-scaled N₂O emissions for the treatments with a lower chemical N application (e.g., N₂₃₀M₁₅ and N₂₀₀M₁₅ treatments) were significantly lower than those with a higher chemical N application (e.g., N₃₂₀M₁₈ and N₂₈₀M₁₈ treatments). Meanwhile, under the condition of the same application amount of chemical fertilizer N, the grain yield-scaled N₂O emission decreased with the increase of manure application rate. Thus, the results support the hypothesis that combining reductions in chemical N fertilizer and applying manure in autumn could be an effective strategy for mitigating N₂O emissions from N-fertilized soils in northeast China.     

有机肥部分替代化肥氮对叶菜产量和环境效应的影响

针对叶菜类蔬菜有机肥氮替代化肥氮的最佳替代比例及对经济效益和环境效应综合评价较缺乏等问题,本研究采用田间试验,对包心菜和小青菜进行等氮水平下不同比例有机肥替代化肥处理,包括:纯化肥氮(0M),25%、50%、75%和100%有机肥替代化肥(25%M、50%M、75%M和100%M),研究不同处理下蔬菜产量、经济效益、土壤氨挥发和氧化亚氮排放。结果表明, 25%M处理下包心菜和小青菜产量均达最高,且与0M处理相比包心菜和小青菜的产量分别增加15.0%(P0.05)和16.3%(P0.05)。25%M比0M处理经济效益分别增加11.7%和5.4%,但在50%M、75%M和100%M处理下经济效益为负增长。25%M处理下,氨挥发累积排放量在包心菜和小青菜季分别为42.1kg·hm~(-2)和12.9kg·hm~(-2),比0M处理分别降低23.4%(P0.05)和41.6%(P0.05); 0M和25%M处理间氧化亚氮累积排放量无显著差异, 25%M处理在包心菜和小青菜季的氧化亚氮累积排放量分别为0.74 kg·hm~(-2)和3.06 kg·hm~(-2);与25%M处理相比, 50%M、75%M和100%M处理下氧化亚氮排放分别增加33.7%～60.8%(P0.05)、50.0%～134.3%(P0.05)和56.8%～185.6%(P0.05)。基于此,提出叶菜类蔬菜有机肥氮替代化肥氮的适宜替代比例在25%左右时可实现最佳的增效减排效果。     

水肥管理对稻田CH4排放及其全球增温潜势影响的评估

甲烷(CH_4)是主要温室气体之一,对全球增温的作用仅次于二氧化碳(CO_2)。稻田是CH_4的重要排放源,减少稻田CH_4排放对减缓气候变暖具有直接效应。为此,掌握稻田CH_4排放的规律和特征对控制和减少稻田CH_4排放尤为重要。为了解稻田温室气体排放的主要影响因子及影响程度,估算稻田温室气体全球增温潜势,寻求农田减排措施,我们通过收集已发表的文献建立了稻田CH_4排放的数据库,采用析因分析与回归分析方法对稻田CH_4日排放量和全球增温潜势特征和可能的影响因子进行了分析。结果表明,稻田CH_4日排放量和增温潜势均随土壤有机质背景含量的升高而增加,不同类型稻田CH_4日排放量大小依次为:双季稻晚稻双季稻早稻单季稻稻麦轮作晚稻;晚稻田CH_4的增温潜势大于早稻田。不同肥料处理条件下,稻田CH_4日排放量表现为:秸秆还田配施有机肥化学氮肥≈生物炭。控制灌溉水量可降低稻田CH_4的综合增温潜势,表现为:持续淹水晒田干湿交替控制灌溉。研究结果说明,稻田CH_4的产生与排放过程受土壤有机质含量、肥料管理和水分管理以及轮作制度等多种因素的共同影响,应依据不同土壤条件和种植制度,适当调整肥水管理,以减少稻田温室气体排放,降低其增温潜势。     

The N2O product ratio of nitrification and its dependence on long-term changes in soil pH

The contribution of nitrification to the emission of nitrous oxide (N₂O) from soils may be large, but its regulation is not well understood. The soil pH appears to play a central role for controlling N₂O emissions from soil, partly by affecting the N₂O product ratios of both denitrification (N₂O/(N₂+N₂O)) and nitrification (N₂O/(NO₂⁻+NO₃⁻). Mechanisms responsible for apparently high N₂O product ratios of nitrification in acid soils are uncertain. We have investigated the pH regulation of the N₂O product ratio of nitrification in a series of experiments with slurries of soils from long-term liming experiments, spanning a pH range from 4.1 to 7.8. ¹⁵N labelled nitrate (NO₃⁻) was added to assess nitrification rates by pool dilution and to distinguish between N₂O from NO₃⁻ reduction and NH₃ oxidation. Sterilized soil slurries were used to determine the rates of chemodenitrification (i.e. the production of nitric oxide (NO) and N₂O from the chemical decomposition of nitrite (NO₂⁻)) as a function of NO₂⁻ concentrations. Additions of NO₂⁻ to aerobic soil slurries (with ¹⁵N labelled NO₃⁻ added) were used to assess its potential for inducing denitrification at aerobic conditions. For soils with pH?5, we found that the N₂O product ratios for nitrification were low (0.2-0.9‰) and comparable to values found in pure cultures of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. In mineral soils we found only a minor increase in the N₂O product ratio with increasing soil pH, but the effect was so weak that it justifies a constant N₂O product ratio of nitrification for N₂O emission models. For the soils with pH 4.1 and 4.2, the apparent N₂O product ratio of nitrification was 2 orders of magnitude higher than above pH 5 (76‰ and 14‰). This could partly be accounted for by the rates of chemodenitrification of NO₂⁻. We further found convincing evidence for NO₂⁻-induction of aerobic denitrification in acid soils. The study underlines the role of NO₂⁻, both for regulating denitrification and for the apparent nitrifier-derived N₂O emission.     

Temporal and spatial dynamics of soil solution C and N concentrations during Lolium perenne L. sward establishment and the effects of elevated CO2 and N additions

There is now clear evidence for a prolonged increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations and enrichment of the biosphere with N. Understanding the fate of C in the plant-soil system under different CO₂ and N regimes is therefore of considerable importance in predicting the environmental effects of climate change and in predicting the sustainability of ecosystems. Swards of Lolium perenne were grown from seed in a Eutric Cambisol at either ambient (ca. 350 μmol mol⁻¹) or elevated (700 μmol mol⁻¹) atmospheric pCO₂ and subjected to two inorganic N fertilizer regimes (no added N and 70 kg N ha⁻¹ month⁻¹). After germination, soil solution concentrations of dissolved organic C (DOC), dissolved inorganic N (DIN), dissolved organic N (DON), phenolics and H⁺ were measured at five depths down the soil profile over 3 months. The exploration of soil layers down the soil profile by roots caused transient increases in soil solution DOC, DON and phenolic concentrations, which then subsequently returned to lower quasi-stable concentrations. In general, the addition of N tended to increase DOC and DON concentrations while exposure to elevated pCO₂ had the opposite effect. These treatment effects, however, gradually diminished over the duration of the experiment from the top of the soil profile downwards. The ambient pCO₂ plus added N regime was the only treatment to maintain a notable difference in soil solution solute concentration, relative to other treatments. This effect on soil solution chemistry appeared to be largely indirect resulting from increased plant growth and a decrease in soil moisture content. Our results show that although plant growth responses to elevated pCO₂ are critically dependent upon N availability, the organic chemistry of the soil solution is relatively insensitive to changes in plant growth once the plants have become established.