Effects of vegetational type and soil depth on soil microbial communities on the Loess Plateau of China

Soil microbial communities are very sensitive to changes in land use and are often used as indicators of soil fertility. We evaluated the microbial communities in the soils of four types of vegetation (cropland (CP), natural grassland (NG), broadleaf forest (BF) and coniferous forest (CF)) at depths of 0–10 and 10–20 cm on the Loess Plateau in China using phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) profiling and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) of DNA amplicons from polymerase chain reactions. The soil microbial communities were affected more by vegetation type than by soil depth. Total organic carbon, total nitrogen, soil-water content, pH, bulk density (BD) and C:N ratio were all significantly associated with the composition of the communities. Total PLFA, bacterial PLFA and fungal PLFA were significantly higher in the BF than the CP. The DGGE analyses showed that NG had the most diverse bacterial and fungal communities. These results confirmed the significant effect of vegetation type on soil microbial communities. BFs and natural grass were better than the CFs for the restoration of vegetation on the Loess Plateau.     

Comparison of root system architecture and rhizosphere microbial communities of Balsas teosinte and domesticated corn cultivars

The progenitor of maize is Balsas teosinte (Zea mays subsp. parviglumis) which grows as a wild plant in the valley of the Balsas river in Mexico. Domestication, primarily targeting above-ground traits, has led to substantial changes in the plant's morphology and modern maize cultivars poorly resemble their wild ancestor. We examined the hypotheses that Balsas teosinte (accession PI 384071) has a) a different root system architecture and b) a structurally and functionally different rhizosphere microbial community than domesticated cultivars sweet corn (Zea mays subsp. mays accession PI 494083) and popping corn (Zea mays subsp. mays accession PI 542713). In a greenhouse experiment, five plants from each corn variety were grown in individual pots containing a Maury silt loam – perlite (2:1) mixture and grown to the V8 growth stage at which rhizosphere bacterial and fungal community structure was assessed using terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism and fatty acid methyl ester analysis. Functional characteristics of the rhizosphere were assayed by examining the potential activity of seven extracellular enzymes involved in carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus cycling. Root system architecture was characterized by root scans of sand grown plants at the V5 growth stage. Compared to the control the sweet corn rhizosphere had different bacterial and fungal community structure, decreased fungal diversity and increased bacterial abundance. Teosinte caused a significant change in the rhizosphere bacterial and fungal community structure and increased bacterial abundance, but no significant decrease in bacterial or fungal diversity where the former was found to be significantly greater than in the sweet corn rhizosphere. Popping corn did not trigger significant changes in the bacterial or fungal diversity and bacterial abundance in the soil. The individual popping corn plants changed the bacterial and fungal communities in different directions and the overall effect on community structure was significant, but small. Of the enzymes analyzed, potential N-acetylglucosaminidase (NAG) activity was found to contributed most to the differentiation of teosinte rhizosphere samples from the other corn varieties. The teosinte root system had proportionally more very fine (diameter < 0.03 mm) roots than popping corn and sweet corn and it developed the highest root to shoot dry weight ratio, followed by popping corn. Sweet corn had significantly lower average root diameter than popping corn and teosinte and grew proportionally the least below-ground dry mass. The results allude to functional and structural differences in the rhizosphere microbial communities of the corn varieties that, with additional research, could lead to useful discoveries on how corn domestication has altered rhizosphere processes and how plant genotype influences nutrient cycling.     

Is the soil microbial community related to the basal area of trees in a Scots pine stand?

The main energy sources of soil microorganisms are litter fall, root litter and exudation. The amount on these carbon inputs vary according to basal area of the forest stand. We hypothesized that soil microbes utilizing these soil carbon sources relate to the basal area of trees. We measured the amount of soil microbial biomass, soil respiration and microbial community structure as determined by phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) profiles in the humus layer (FH) of an even-aged stand of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) with four different basal area levels ranging from 19.9 m² ha⁻¹ in the study plot Kasper 1 to 35.7 m² ha⁻¹ in Kasper 4. Increasing trend in basal respiration, total PLFAs and fungal-to-bacterial ratio was observed from Kasper 1 to Kasper 3 (basal area 29.2 m² ha⁻¹). The soil microbial community structure in Kasper 3 differed from that of the other study plots.     

Plant species influence microbial diversity and carbon allocation in the rhizosphere

Plant species effects on microbial communities are attributed to changes in microbial community composition and biomass, and may depend on plant species specific differences in the quality of resources (carbon) inputs. We examined the idea that plant-soil feedbacks can be explained by a chance effect, which is the probability of a highly productive or keystone plant species is present in the community and will influence the functions more than the number of species per se. A ¹³C pulse labelling technique was applied to three plant species and a species mixture in a greenhouse experiment to examine the carbon flow from plants to soil microbial communities. The ¹³C label was given as CO₂ to shoots of a legume (Lotus corniculatus), a forb (Plantago lanceolata), a grass (Holcus lanatus) and a mixture of the three species. Microbial phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) was analysed in order to determine the biomass and composition of the soil microbial community. The incorporation of the stable isotope into soil microorganisms was determined through GC-IRMS analyses of the microbial PLFAs. Plant species identity did not influence the microbial biomass when determined as total carbon of microbial phospholipid fatty acids. However, the labelled carbon showed that the grass monoculture (H. lanatus) and the plant mixture allocated more ¹³C into bacteria and actinomycete biomass than the other plant species. H. lanatus monocultures had also the highest amounts of ¹³C allocated to AM-fungi and saprophytic fungi. The carbon allocation from plants to soil microorganisms in a plant species mixture can thus be explained by the presence of a highly productive species that influence soil functions.     

Shifts in rhizosphere microbial communities and enzyme activity of Poa alpina across an alpine chronosequence

This study quantifies the influence of Poa alpina on the soil microbial community in primary succession of alpine ecosystems, and whether these effects are controlled by the successional stage. Four successional sites representative of four stages of grassland development (initial, 4 years (non-vegetated); pioneer, 20 years; transition, 75 years; mature, 9500 years old) on the Rotmoos glacier foreland, Austria, were sampled. The size, composition and activity of the microbial community in the rhizosphere and bulk soil were characterized using the chloroform-fumigation extraction procedure, phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis and measurements of the enzymes β-glucosidase, β-xylosidase, N-acetyl-β-glucosaminidase, leucine aminopeptidase, acid phosphatase and sulfatase. The interplay between the host plant and the successional stage was quantified using principal component (PCA) and multidimensional scaling analyses. Correlation analyses were applied to evaluate the relationship between soil factors (C_org, N_t, C/N ratio, pH, ammonium, phosphorus, potassium) and microbial properties in the bulk soil. In the pioneer stage microbial colonization of the rhizosphere of P. alpina was dependent on the reservoir of microbial species in the bulk soil. As a consequence, the rhizosphere and bulk soil were similar in microbial biomass (ninhydrin-reactive nitrogen (NHR-N)), community composition (PLFA), and enzyme activity. In the transition and mature grassland stage, more benign soil conditions stimulated microbial growth (NHR-N, total amount of PLFA, bacterial PLFA, Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria), and microbial diversity (Shannon index H) in the rhizosphere either directly or indirectly through enhanced carbon allocation. In the same period, the rhizosphere microflora shifted from a G⁻ to a more G⁺, and from a fungal to a more bacteria-dominated community. Rhizosphere β-xylosidase, N-acetyl-β-glucosaminidase, and sulfatase activity peaked in the mature grassland soil, whereas rhizosphere leucine aminopeptidase, β-glucosidase, and phosphatase activity were highest in the transition stage, probably because of enhanced carbon and nutrient allocation into the rhizosphere due to better growth conditions. Soil organic matter appeared to be the most important driver of microbial colonization in the bulk soil. The decrease in soil pH and soil C/N ratio mediated the shifts in the soil microbial community composition (bacPLFA, bacPLFA/fungPLFA, G⁻, G⁺/G⁻). The activities of β-glucosidase, β-xylosidase and phosphatase were related to soil ammonium and phosphorus, indicating that higher decomposition rates enhanced the nutrient availability in the bulk soil. We conclude that the major determinants of the microflora vary along the successional gradient: in the pioneer stage the rhizosphere microflora was primarily determined by the harsh soil environment; under more favourable environmental conditions, however, the host plant selected for a specific microbial community that was related to the dynamic interplay between soil properties and carbon supply.     

Plant genotype strongly modifies the structure and growth of maize rhizosphere microbial communities

We studied the microbial communities in maize (Zea mays) rhizosphere to determine the extent to which their structure, biomass, activity and growth were influenced by plant genotype (su1 and sh2 genes) and the addition of standard and high doses of different types of fertilizer (inorganic, raw manure and vermicompost). For this purpose, we sampled the rhizosphere of maize plants at harvest, and analyzed the microbial community structure (PLFA analysis) and activity (basal respiration and bacterial and fungal growth rates). Discriminant analysis clearly differentiated rhizosphere microbial communities in relation to plant genotype. Although microorganisms clearly responded to dose of fertilization, the three fertilizers also contributed to differentiate rhizosphere microbial communities. Moreover, larger plants did not promoted higher biomass or microbial growth rates suggesting complex interactions between plants and fertilizers, probably as a result of the different performance of plant genotypes within fertilizer treatments, i.e. differences in the quality and/or composition of root exudates.     

Effects of glyphosate on rhizosphere soil microbial communities under two different plant compositions by cultivation-dependent and -independent methodologies

We studied, under two different plant compositions, the short-term effects of glyphosate on rhizosphere soil microbial communities through the utilization of cultivation-dependent and -independent techniques. A short-term pot study was carried out using factorial treatments that included two different compositions of forage plant species (triticale versus a mixture of triticale and pea) and two concentrations of glyphosate (50 and 500 mg active ingredient kg⁻¹ soil, as a commercial formulation, Roundup Plus) arranged in a completely randomized design experiment with four replicates. Control plants (no glyphosate added) were clipped in an attempt to compare two methods of weed control (manual = clipping; chemical = herbicide treatment). Rhizosphere soil was sampled 15 and 30 days after glyphosate treatment and the following soil components were determined: potentially mineralizable nitrogen, ammonium content, community-level physiological profiles using Biolog Ecoplates™, DNA microbial biomass and genotype diversity by means of PCR-DGGE. Fifteen days after herbicide treatment, a glyphosate-induced stimulation of the activity and functional diversity of the cultivable portion of the heterotrophic soil microbial community was observed, most likely due to glyphosate acting as an available source of C, N and P. On the other hand, 30 days after herbicide treatment, both the activity and diversity of the rhizosphere soil microbial communities showed an inconsistent response to glyphosate addition. Apart from its intended effect on plants, glyphosate had non-target effects on the rhizosphere soil microbial community which were, interestingly, more enhanced in triticale than in “triticale + pea” pots. Biolog™ was more sensitive than PCR-DGGE to detect changes in soil microbial communities induced by glyphosate and plant composition.     

CLPP and EEA profiles of microbial communities in salt marsh sediments

Objective  Microbial communities are a central component of trophic dynamics and biogeochemical processes on coastal systems, since most of the processes in sediments are mediated by microorganisms and carried out by enzymes. Microorganisms play a key role in decomposition processes in salt marsh sediments, although the significance of microbial dynamics is largely unexplored. A culture-dependent (Ecoplate) and a culture-independent (extracellular enzyme activity [EEA]) approaches were evaluated in their ability to distinguish the catabolic potential among sediments from Tagus estuary salt marshes with different proximities to anthropogenic sources. Methods  Ecoplate was used to analyse the salt marsh community-level physiological profiles (CLPPs). Results were expressed as the net area under the curve for each of the 31 response wells over a 3-day incubation period in two sediment horizons. The catabolic profiles for salt marsh samples were analysed by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and hierarchic clustering methods. EEA was analysed by fluorescein diacetate (FDA) hydrolysis in two sediment horizons. The FDA is catalysed by extracellular enzymes, i.e. esterases, lipases and partially by proteases. Results were expressed as μg g⁻¹d wt h⁻¹. Results and Discussion  In this study the CLPP and EEA data were not generally correlated. In Corroios salt marsh only in surface sediments higher net areas corresponded to higher extracellular enzymatic activity, and in Alcochete deep sediments lower net areas corresponded to lower enzymatic activity. Although EEA profiles more directly reflect the inherent activity of resident community in each salt marsh sample, the CLPP profiles provide better assessments of diversity. ESS-Submission Editor: Prof. Dr. Peter Schroeder, Institute of Soil Ecology, Department of Rhizosphere Biology, GSF — National Research Center for Environment & Health, Ingolstaedter Landstrasse 1, 85758 Neuherberg, Germany (peter.schroeder@gsf.de)     

Structural differences in the rhizosphere communities of legumes are not equally reflected in community-level physiological profiles

The relationship of structural diversity and differences in the functional potentials of rhizosphere communities of alfalfa, common bean and clover was investigated in microcosms. PCR-SSCP (single strand conformation polymorphism) analysis of 16S rRNA genes revealed significant differences in the composition of the leguminous rhizosphere communities at the shoot stage of plants grown in the same soil. Sequencing of dominant SSCP-bands indicated the presence of plant specific organisms. The partial rRNA gene sequences were related to members of the α- and γ-Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria. Besides the plant species, the soil also affected the structural diversity in rhizospheres. The dominant bacterial populations of alfalfa grown in soils with different agricultural histories were assigned to different taxonomic groups. Addressing the functional potentials, community-level physiological profiles (CLPP) were generated using BIOLOG GN^®. The three leguminous rhizosphere communities could be differentiated by principle component analysis, though the overall analysis indicated that the metabolic potential of all rhizosphere samples was similar. The functional variation examined in rhizospheres of alfalfa was minor in response to the soil origin and was found not to be significant different at different growth stages. The results indicate that similar functional potentials may be provided by structurally different bacterial communities.     

Increased microbial activity and nitrogen mineralization coupled to changes in microbial community structure in the rhizosphere of Bt corn

The interactions between plant roots and soil microorganisms are essential for the function and stability of ecosystems, primary agricultural production and plant health. Despite the importance of soil microbes the response of these microbes to large-scale cultivation of genetically modified (GM) crops is still poorly understood. This study evaluated the potential impact of two lines of transgenic Bt maize on rhizosphere microorganisms. A time-course field experiment was conducted over a period of two years in two fields in Guadalajara (Spain) with monthly sampling from April to September. Rhizosphere soil was collected from transgenic (TG) and unmodified (WT) maize plants from each field and sampling time for the analysis of several important functional and structural soil quality parameters. Total microbial activity, as determined by H³-Thymidine and C¹⁴-Leucine incorporation, was found to be higher in the rhizospheres of the transgenic plants. Similarly, differences in potential ammonification and nitrification were observed in the second year of the study. In contrast, bacterial and fungal microbial catabolic abilities, as determined by Biolog ECO and FF plate analyses, respectively, were more influenced by sampling time than the transgenic nature of the plants. Microbial community structure was also studied by bacterial and phylum-specific PCR-DGGE and PCR cloning approaches. In general, differences were again more pronounced between sampling times, as opposed to between TG versus WT plants, although marked differences were observed within the Betaproteobacteria between plant lines. For the first time it describes the presence of Iamiaceae family in soil, specifically to TG plant rhizosphere. To summarize, the study showed that some important properties of rhizopshere microbes may be impacted by Bt maize cultivation and highlighted the fact that such potential effects need to be viewed within the context of seasonal and spatial variability.     

Choice of methods for soil microbial community analysis: PLFA maximizes power compared to CLPP and PCR-based approaches

Polyphasic studies that used phospholipid fatty acid analysis (PLFA) in conjunction with community level physiological profiling (CLPP) or PCR-based molecular methods were analyzed in order to evaluate the power of each strategy to detect treatment effects on soil microbial community structure (MCS). We found no studies where CLPP or PCR-based methods differentiated treatments that were not also differentiated by PLFA. In 14 of 32 studies (44%), PLFA differentiated treatments that were not resolved by CLPP analysis. In 5 of 25 studies (20%), PLFA differentiated treatments that were not resolved by PCR-based methods. We discuss PLFA, CLPP, and PCR-based methods with respect to power to discriminate change in MCS versus potential for characterization of underlying population level changes.     

Vertical gradients of potential enzyme activities in soil profiles of European beech,Norway spruce and Scots pine dominated forest sites

Management of forest sites has the potential to modulate soil organic matter decomposition by changing the catalytic properties of soil microorganisms within a soil profile. In this study we examined the impact of forest management intensity and soil physico-chemical properties on the variation of enzyme activities (β-glucosidase, β-xylosidase, α-glucosidase, phenol oxidase, N-acetyl-glucosaminidase, l-leucine aminopeptidase, phosphatase) in the topsoil and two subsoil horizons in three German regions (Schorfheide-Chorin, Hainich-Dün, Schwäbische Alb). The sandy soils in the Schorfheide-Chorin (SCH) showed lower ratios of the activity of carbon (C) acquiring enzymes (β-glucosidase) relative to nitrogen (N) acquiring enzymes (N-acetyl-glucosaminidase + l-leucine aminopeptidase), and activity of C acquiring enzymes relative to phosphorous (P) acquiring enzymes (phosphatase) than the finer textured soils in the Hainich-Dün (HAI) and Schwäbische Alb (ALB), indicating a shift in investment to N and P acquisition in the SCH. All enzyme activities, except phenol oxidase activity, decreased in deeper soil horizons as concentrations of organic C and total N did, while the decrease was much stronger from the topsoil to the first subsoil horizon than from the first subsoil to the second subsoil horizon. In contrast, phenol oxidase activity showed no significant decrease towards deeper soil horizons. Additionally, enzyme activities responsible for the degradation of more recalcitrant C relative to labile C compounds increased in the two subsoil horizons. Subsoil horizons in all regions also indicate a shift to higher N acquisition, while the strength of the shift depended on the soil type. Further, our results clearly showed that soil properties explained most of the total variance of enzyme activities in all soil horizons followed by study region, while forest management intensity had no significant impact on enzyme activities. Among all included soil properties, the clay content was the variable that explained the highest proportion of variance in enzyme activities with higher enzyme activities in clay rich soils. Our results highlight the need for large scale studies including different regions and their environmental conditions in order to derive general conclusions on which factors (anthropogenic or environmental) are most influential on enzyme activities in the whole soil profile in the long term at the regional scale.     

Soil aggregate size mediates the impacts of cropping regimes on soil carbon and microbial communities

Understanding the influence of long-term crop management practices on the soil microbial community is critical for linking soil microbial flora with ecosystem processes such as those involved in soil carbon cycling. In this study, pyrosequencing and a functional gene array (GeoChip 4.0) were used to investigate the shifts in microbial composition and functional gene structure in a medium clay soil subjected to various cropping regimes. Pyrosequencing analysis showed that the community structure (β-diversity) for bacteria and fungi was significantly impacted among different cropping treatments. Functional gene array-based analysis revealed that crop rotation practices changed the structure and abundance of genes involved in C degradation. Significant correlations were observed between the activities of four enzymes involved in soil C degradation and the abundance of genes responsible for the production of respective enzymes, suggesting that a shift in the microbial community may influence soil C dynamics. We further integrated physical, chemical, and molecular techniques (qPCR) to assess relationships between soil C, microbial derived enzymes and soil bacterial community structure at the soil micro-environmental scale (e.g. within different aggregate-size fractions). We observed a dominance of different bacterial phyla within soil microenvironments which was correlated with the amount of C in the soil aggregates suggesting that each aggregate represents a different ecological niche for microbial colonization. Significant effects of aggregate size were found for the activity of enzymes involved in C degradation suggesting that aggregate size distribution influenced C availability. The influence of cropping regimes on microbial and soil C responses declined with decreasing size of soil aggregates and especially with silt and clay micro-aggregates. Our results suggest that long term crop management practices influence the structural and functional potential of soil microbial communities and the impact of crop rotations on soil C turnover varies between different sized soil aggregates. These findings provide a strong framework to determine the impact of management practices on soil C and soil health.     

Development of soil microbial communities during tallgrass prairie restoration

Soil microbial communities were examined in a chronosequence of four different land-use treatments at the Konza Prairie Biological Station, Kansas. The time series comprised a conventionally tilled cropland (CTC) developed on former prairie soils, two restored grasslands that were initiated on former agricultural soils in 1998 (RG₉₈) and 1978 (RG₇₈), and an annually burned native tallgrass prairie (BNP), all on similar soil types. In addition, an unburned native tallgrass prairie (UNP) and another grassland restored in 2000 (RG₀₀) on a different soil type were studied to examine the effect of long-term fire exclusion vs. annual burning in native prairie and the influence of soil type on soil microbial communities in restored grasslands. Both 16S rRNA gene clone libraries and phospholipid fatty acid analyses indicated that the structure and composition of bacterial communities in the CTC soil were significantly different from those in prairie soils. Within the time series, soil physicochemical characteristics changed monotonically. However, changes in the microbial communities were not monotonic, and a transitional bacterial community formed during restoration that differed from communities in either the highly disturbed cropland or the undisturbed original prairie. The microbial communities of RG₉₈ and RG₀₀ grasslands were also significantly different even though they were restored at approximately the same time and were managed similarly; a result attributable to the differences in soil type and associated soil chemistry such as pH and Ca. Burning and seasonal effects on soil microbial communities were small. Similarly, changing plot size from 300 m² to 150 m² in area caused small differences in the estimates of microbial community structure. In conclusion, microbial community structure and biochemical properties of soil from the tallgrass prairie were strongly impacted by cultivation, and the microbial community was not fully restored even after 30 years.     

Links between pseudometallophytes and rhizosphere microbial communities in a metalliferous soil

Short-term improvements in soil health derived from pseudometallophytes growth and metal phytoremediation were quantified based upon specific microbial properties of potential value as bioindicators of soil functioning. To this aim, plant consortia, consisting of 1–3 pseudometallophytes with different metal-tolerance strategies (hyperaccumulator: Noccaea caerulescens; accumulator: Rumex acetosa; excluder: Festuca rubra), were grown in a mine soil. At the end of the experiment, soil microbial biomass, activity, structural and functional community profiling, and stability were determined. Growing together with N. caerulescens stimulated the growth of the other two pseudometallophytes. The combination of R. acetosa and N. caerulescens extracted the highest amounts of Zn. Except for β-glucosidase, a negative correlation was found between enzyme activities and number of pseudometallophytes present in the study pots. Microbial biomass C was highest in the presence of all three pseudometallophytes. The combination of different pseudometallophyte species, which may allow for a greater exploitation of potential niche space, appears promising for phytoremediation. When quantifying soil health, the importance of measuring various types of soil microbial properties has been highlighted, as the response observed was different in each of them.     

Soil Microbial Community Composition and Diversity in the Rhizosphere of a Chinese Medicinal Plant

Rehmannia glutinosa is an important medicinal plant, but there is a serious problem of decreasing productivity with its continuous cropping on the same land. We hypothesize some relationships between this problem and the disturbed soil ecosystem. In this work, two community‐based microbiological measurements, community‐level physiological profiling (CLPP) using Biolog sole carbon (C) source utilization tests and phospholipid ester–linked fatty acid (PLFA) profiles, were used to evaluate soil microbial community function and composition of different R. glutinosa cropping soils. Field investigation showed that the problems with continuous cropping occurred not only in 2‐year continuous fields but also in 5‐year rotation fields. Soil basal respiration and metabolic quotient were significantly greater in R. glutinosa cropping soils than in the noncropping controls. In contrast, the Shannon index from the Biolog data set was lower in R. glutinosa cropping soils. Both CLPP‐ and PLFA‐based principal component analyses (PCA) showed distinct groupings of soil microbial communities in R. glutinosa rhizosphere, and 11 PLFAs representing different microbes were identified from the principal component scores of PLFAs. Among these, an abundance of PLFA 18:2ω6,9, which is a biomarker of soil fungi, was significantly higher in R. glutinosa cropping soils than control soils. These results suggest an alteration of soil microbial community following R. glutinosa cropping, and this might be an important reason for the constraints associated with continuous cropping.     

Structural diversity and enzyme activity of volcanic soils at different stages of development and response to experimental disturbance

We investigated the phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) diversity and enzyme activities in soils from the volcano, Mt. Etna (Sicily). The soils were at sites which have been developing for different periods of time and have formed in volcanic lava of differing ages that have been supplemented with volcanic ejecta from subsequent eruptions. However, the plant communities indicated a marked successional difference between the sites and we have used this as a proxy for developmental stage. We have compared the structural and functional properties of the microbial communities in soils from the two sites and tested experimentally the hypothesis that the more diverse community was more resistant and resilient to disturbance. The experimental disturbance imposed was heating (60 °C for 48 h) and the recovery of enzyme activities (β-glucosidase, acid phosphatase and arylsulfatase) and structural properties (PLFA profiles) were then followed over six months. The microbial community in the soil from the older site was more structurally diverse and had a larger total PLFA concentration before disturbance than that of the soil from the younger site. The older soil community was not more resistant and resilient following an environmental disturbance as the younger soil community was equally or more resistant and resilient for all parameters. Changes in enzyme activities following disturbance were almost entirely attributable to changes in biomass (total PLFA).     

Changes in enzyme activities and soil microbial community composition along carbon and nutrient gradients at the Franz Josef chronosequence, New Zealand

During primary succession, the abundance of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) in soil increases, while phosphorus (P) declines. These changes in nutrient concentrations in organic matter are likely to play an important role in controlling enzyme-mediated nutrient mineralization. We examined how enzyme activity and efficiency changed with successional time in organic and mineral soils taken from the 120 000-year-old Franz Josef soil development sequence, New Zealand, and the relationship between enzyme activity and efficiency and soil nutrient concentrations. We found that the activity of enzymes involved in P mineralization increased with site age across the Franz Josef chronosequence, while the activity of enzymes regulating C and N mineralization declined in organic but not mineral soil. Sulfatase activity peaked at an intermediate-aged site, possibly indicating a transient period of S limitation. The activity of phosphatase enzymes was negatively correlated with the concentration of P in the soil, whereas activity of C-, N- and S-hydrolyzing enzymes was not strongly dependent on nutrient concentrations. When assessed as efficiency (activity per unit microbial biomass), there were strong patterns of increasing efficiency of P-, and decreasing efficiency of C- and N-hydrolyzing enzymes with site age. We suggest that activity patterns for C-, N- and S-hydrolyzing enzymes were obscured by simultaneous and opposing changes in enzyme efficiency and microbial biomass. In mineral soil, efficiency of enzymes was negatively correlated with soil nutrient availability. In contrast, in organic soil, efficiency of C-, N- and S-hydrolyzing enzymes was positively correlated with soil P, while efficiency of P-hydrolyzing enzymes was negatively correlated with soil P. The increase in efficiency of P-hydrolyzing enzymes, and decrease in efficiency of C-, N- and S-hydrolyzing enzymes with site age was accompanied by a shift in microbial community composition towards higher relative abundances of fungi. Changes in enzyme efficiency with site age are likely to be due to both constitutive differences in enzyme production, and down-regulation of enzyme expression.     

Assessment of microbial activity and bacterial community composition in the rhizosphere of a copper accumulator and a non-accumulator

Soil microorganisms may play an important role in the uptake of heavy metals from soils. However, assessments of bacterial activity and community composition in the rhizosphere of accumulators have been largely ignored. We studied potential effects of a copper (Cu)-accumulator, Elsholtzia splendens, and a non-Cu-accumulator plant, Trifolium repens, on soil microbial activity and community composition with increasing Cu addition. The results showed that concentrations of Cu in the shoots of E. splendens were 2.1, 2.2 and 2.4 times those of T. repens under the treatment of different Cu concentrations. Soil microbial biomass and phosphatase activity in the rhizosphere of E. splendens were higher than those of T.repens. PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) fingerprint analysis revealed that addition of Cu decreased the number of bands in bare soil and soil with T. repens. However, there was a significant increase in the number of bands in soil with E. splendens incorporated with either 200 or 500 mg kg⁻¹ Cu. The abundances of five phylogenetic groups related most closely to -, β-, γ-proteobacteria, Gram-positive bacteria and CFB group, respectively, were determined in the rhizosphere of plants. Some specific clone such as E13 (metal-contaminated soil clone K20-64) was found in the rhizosphere of E. splendens. Results indicated that E. splendens, as a Cu-accumulator, played an important role in governing soil microbial activity and bacterial community composition in the rhizosphere in response to Cu stress.     

Responses of soil microbial communities and functions associated with organic carbon mineralization to nitrogen addition in a Tibetan grassland

Alpine grasslands with a high soil organic carbon(SOC) storage on the Tibetan Plateau are experiencing rapid climate warming and anthropogenic nitrogen(N) deposition; this is expected to substantially increase the soil N availability, which may impact carbon(C) cycling. However, little is known regarding how N enrichment influences soil microbial communities and functions relative to C cycling in this region. We conducted a 4-year field experiment on an alpine grassland to evaluate the effects o...