Smallpox vaccination and bioterrorism with pox viruses

Bioterrorist attacks occupy a special place amongst the innumerable potential types of terrorist attack, with the intentional release of pox viruses being especially feared in this connection. Apart from the variola virus, the agent responsible for smallpox in humans, the monkeypox virus and numerous other animal pox viruses pose potential risks for humans and animals. This risk scenario also includes recombinations between the various pox viruses, changes in hosts and genetically engineered manipulations of pox viruses.

For over 200 years, the method of choice for combatting smallpox was via vaccination with a reproductive, original vaccinia virus. Worldwide eradication of smallpox at the end of the 1970s and the discontinuation of routine smallpox vaccination in 1980 can be credited to such vaccination. Unfortunately, these vaccinations were associated with a large number of postvaccinal impairments, sometimes resulting in death (e.g. postvaccinal encephalitis). The only way to restrict such postvaccinal complications was to carry out initial vaccination within the first 2 postnatal years. Initial vaccination at a later age led to such a sharp increase in the number of vaccines with complications that vaccination had to be discouraged.

The dilemma of the smallpox vaccine stocks stems from the fact that a large portion of these stocks are produced with the same vaccinia strains as before. This is irresponsible, especially as the percentage of immune-suppressed persons in the population, for whom vaccination-related complications pose an especial threat, is increasing.

One solution to the dilemma of the smallpox vaccine stocks is the MVA strain. It is harmless, protects humans and animals equally well against smallpox and can be applied parenterally.     

Use of vaccinia rabies recombinant for oral vaccination of wildlife

A vaccinia rabies recombinant virus was constructed and shown to induce the synthesis of rabies virus glycoprotein in infected cells and to induce rabies virus neutralizing antibodies and protection in susceptible animals. Active when orally administered, this recombinant is a good candidate for the development of vaccines for wild animal rabies vectors. This recombinant was found stable, safe for target and non-target animal species, and protective for most of the rabies vectors. After extensive experimental studies conducted under controlled conditions, it as used in limited field trials and in an extensive open field trial. The preliminary results confirmed its basic properties and potential for rabies eradication.     

Substitution of vaccinia virus Elstree by modified vaccinia virus Ankara to test the virucidal efficacy of chemical disinfectants

After the eradication of variola in 1980, the smallpox vaccination was considered to be no longer required and was subsequently abandoned mainly because of possible adverse effects of vaccinia virus especially in first‐time vaccinees. Despite a growing number of humans without immunity against vaccinia virus, vaccinia virus Lister Elstree (VACV) is still prescribed for testing virucidal efficacy of chemical disinfectants in the guidelines of the German Veterinary Medical Society [Deutsche Veterinärmedizinische Gesellschaft (DVG)], the German Association for the Control of Virus Diseases [Deutsche Vereinigung zur Bekämpfung der Viruskrankheiten (DVV)] and the Robert Koch Institute (RKI). To evaluate a possible substitution of VACV, with the attenuated modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) the virucidal efficacy of four different DVG‐listed commercially available chemical disinfectants representing different groups of chemicals was tested against these two viruses. Quantitative suspension tests and qualitative carrier tests with poplar wood and gauze were performed. Distinction of VACV and MVA was confirmed by cytopathogenic effects, such as differences in plaque morphology. No significant difference in disinfection efficacy between VACV and MVA was observed for any of the disinfectants tested. Implying that vaccinia virus poses a risk after inadvertent inoculation, our results show that MVA, which does not replicate in humans, should replace VACV in the chemical disinfectant testing guidelines.     

应用电镜技术对狂犬病毒ERA株污染鼠痘病毒的检出

狂犬病毒ERA株BHK21细胞上增殖并用电镜技术跟踪观察。结果发现除了有少量的目的毒外，还混有大量的痘病毒，经鼠痘酶标抗体检测试剂盒检测为鼠痘病毒。该病毒很可能是来自做复壮狂犬病毒ERA株毒力试验的小白鼠。     

不同启动子对重组痘苗病毒表达狂犬病病毒糖蛋白基因的影响

以血凝素（ＨＡ）基因为侧翼，将狂犬病病毒糖蛋白基因ｃＤＮＡ置于不同类型的痘苗病毒复合启动子下游，构建了４种表达质粒。重组表达质粒转染已感染ＷＲ株痘苗病毒的ＢＨＫ２１细胞，并通过鸡红细胞吸附试验，筛选、纯化出与表达质粒对应的４组ＨＡ－重组痘苗病毒：ｖＳＦＪ１－１０ＲＶｇｐ，ｖＳＦＪ２－１６ＲＶｇｐ，ｖＲＪ１－１０ＲＶｇｐ，ｖＲＪ２－１０ＲＶｇｐ。经间接免疫荧光试验（ＩＦＡ）鉴定，从４组重组病毒中每组各鉴定出１株阳性重组病毒。Ｗｅｓｔｅｒｎｂｌｏｔ检测显示，重组病毒感染的ＢＨＫ２１细胞裂解物上清中有１种蛋白与抗ＲＶＧＰ的ＭｃＡｂ发生特异反应，分子量为６９０００。在重组病毒感染早期，ＲＶＧＰ的表达量以ｖＳＦＪ１－１０ＲＶｇｐ最高；而在感染晚期，则以ｖＳＦＪ２－１６ＲＶｇｐ最高。４株重组病毒免疫小鼠，均能够不同程度地诱导小鼠产生抗ＲＶＧＰ特异性抗体。     

Recombinant virus vaccines--present status and future prospects

Several DNA viruses have recently emerged as useful eucaryotic vectors. The ability to incorporate large amounts of foreign DNA in the vaccinia virus genome without loss of infectivity, evidence to correct glycosylation and processing of expressed proteins and the wide host range of vaccinia virus all contribute to the versatility of this system as a research tool. The development of recombinant DNA technology and its use in genetic engineering has provided opportunities to construct DNA-recombinant viruses that can provide protection against a spectrum of diseases. A brief account is given of current developments and future prospects of DNA recombinant viruses, with particular reference to vaccinia virus.     

重组痘苗病毒载体研究进展

通过同源重组将外源基因插入到痘苗病毒基因组内,以痘苗病毒为载体使外源基因在动物细胞内表达以获得目的蛋白,从而达到免疫接种的目的.痘苗病毒有宿主范围广、允许插入外源基因片段长、可通过多种途径进行接种、能诱导体液和细胞免疫反应及易于增殖生产等优点,在疫苗研制中得到了广泛的应用.以痘苗病毒作为载体表达狂犬病病毒糖蛋白研制成的狂犬病疫苗已经在野生动物狂犬病控制中发挥了巨大的作用,用痘苗病毒研制的艾滋病病毒疫苗也已经进入了临床试验.     

伪狂犬病病毒糖蛋白gp50基因的克隆和表达

从包含伪狂犬病病毒（ＰＲＶ）闽Ａ株ＢａｍＨＩ－７片段的重组质粒ｐＰＲ１２８中分离出含有完整糖蛋白ｇｐ５０基因的２．１ｋｂＤＮＡ片段，用ＫｐｎＩ和ＳｔｕＩ酶切后，将其酶切片段分别克隆到ｐＵＣ１９载体中，构建了２．１ｋｂ片段完整测序用质粒。对其序列进行分析，发现与文献报道结果一致，证明分离的ｇｐ５０基因是正确的。将包含ｇｐ５０基因的２．１ｋｂ和１．６ｋｂＤＮＡ片段分别插入带有痘苗病毒天坛株ＴＫ基因区段的ｐＧＪＰ－５质粒Ｐ７．５启动子的下游，构建了ｐＧＢＴ５０－３６和ｐＧＢＴ５０－Ｓ２２个嵌合载体。将嵌合载体通过磷酸钙共沉淀法转染预先感染ＴＫ＋痘苗病毒天坛株的人ＴＫ－１４３细胞或ＣＶ－１细胞，进行体内同源重组。经蚀斑纯化，在ＢｄＵＲ选择压力下，通过光敏生物素标记的探针杂交，获得带有ＰＲＶｇｐ５０基因的重组痘苗病毒。用ＥＬＩＳＡ检测，重组痘苗病毒有特异性ＰＲＶｇｐ５０抗原存在。     

Viruses as vectors

Traditional vaccines against diseases caused by viruses are based on live attenuated viruses or killed virus preparations. Through the application of molecular biology it is now possible to consider several new approaches to making vaccines, which may combine increased efficacy with greater safety. One of these approaches is to manipulate genetically a virus so that it carries and expresses a foreign gene (or part of a gene) which codes for a protective antigen for another disease. Adeno-, polio- and herpesviruses have been engineered to act as vectors in this way but vaccinia virus remains the main candidate for a recombinant virus vector for vaccine use. The broad host-range of vaccinia virus has made it an effective vector for the analysis of expression of "foreign" antigens as well as a tool for the dissection of the host animal's immune system. For practical purposes in veterinary vaccines, recombinant viruses based on other poxviruses, with more restricted host-ranges, may have certain advantages. Work on the development of recombinant avipoxviruses and capripoxviruses as prototype vaccines for use in poultry and ruminants, respectively, is discussed and illustrated.     

Responses of cattle, sheep and poultry to a recombinant vaccinia virus expressing a swine influenza haemagglutinin

Groups of cattle, sheep and poultry were inoculated with a recombinant vaccinia virus expressing the haemagglutinin of the swine influenza virus A/NJ/11/76. No adverse clinical responses were recorded and none of the animals developed a viraemia when inoculated with the recombinant or wild-type vaccinia virus. Recombinant virus reisolated from lesions in cattle was stable, maintaining its thymidine kinase negative phenotype and ability to express the swine influenza haemagglutinin. Antibodies to the influenza haemagglutinin were detected in cattle, sheep and poultry inoculated with the recombinant virus. While no animals inoculated with wild-type virus developed these antibodies, there was no detectable spread of either recombinant or wild-type virus from the inoculation sites or to in-contact uninoculated animals. The results indicate that recombinant vaccinia viruses can induce immune responses in cattle, sheep and poultry demonstrating their potential as vaccine vectors in a variety of important veterinary species.     

Animal poxviruses transmitted from cat to man: current event with lethal end.

We report about the infection of an 18-year-old man with an orthopox virus (OPV) which was transmitted by a cat. The infectious route from cat to man could be proved by epidemiological, virological and serological methods. The corresponding techniques are described. The patient had not been vaccinated against smallpox and was intensively immunosuppressed by medication on account of a severe endogeneous eczema combined with an allergic asthma bronchiale. A cyclic poxvirus disease developed with a generalised, partly confluent pox virus exanthema disseminated over the body. The clinical symptoms were similar to a "variola pustulosa haemorrhagica". The young man died of a lung embolism in the course of the intensive medical therapy. The haemorrhagic character of the pox virus pustules with central necrosis (pox navel) could be reproduced in the rabbit skin and on chorioallantois membranes. The pox virus isolated from the patient could be differentiated from variola, vaccinia and monkeypox virus. It is a member of the group of "cowpox-like viruses". The environmental importance of these OPVs is discussed.     

Stability of vaccinia-vectored recombinant oral rabies vaccine under field conditions: a 3-year study

Rabies is an incurable zoonotic disease caused by rabies virus, a member of the rhabdovirus family. It is transmitted through the bite of an infected animal. Control methods, including oral rabies vaccination (ORV) programs, have led to a reduction in the spread and prevalence of the disease in wildlife. This study evaluated the stability of RABORAL, a recombinant vaccinia virus vaccine that is used in oral rabies vaccination programs. The vaccine was studied in various field microenvironments in order to describe its viability and facilitate effective baiting strategies. Field microenvironments influenced the stability of this vaccine in this study. This study emphasizes the importance of understanding how vaccines perform under varying field conditions in order to plan effective baiting strategies.     

应用禽痘病毒表达载体研制重组疫苗的研究进展

禽痘病毒是继痘苗病毒之后又一种重要的动物病毒表达载体，它具有严格的宿主特异性和生物安全性，从而使它成为禽类病原基因工程活载体疫苗研制过程中的一种应用极为广泛的工具；同时它在其它哺乳动物乃至人类病原基因的表达方面也显示了独特的优越性及广阔的开发和应用前景，本文对禽痘病毒作为表达载体的研究进展，应用前景及目前存在的问题作了综述。     

Modified vaccinia virus Ankara as a vaccine against feline coronavirus: immunogenicity and efficacy

Feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV) is a coronavirus that induces a fatal systemic disease mediated by an inappropriate immune response. Most previous vaccination attempts against FIPV were unsuccessful because IgG antibodies against the surface protein enhance the infection. However, two studies have shown that poxvirus vectors (vaccinia WR and canarypox) expressing only the FIPV membrane (M) protein can elicit a partially protective immunity which is supposed to be cell-mediated (Virology 181 (1991) 327; International patent WO 97/20054 (1997)). In our study, we report the construction of another poxvirus, the modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA), as an expression vector for the FIPV M protein. In this vector, the M gene has been inserted downstream a strong early/late promoter, whereas the two previously described poxviruses expressed the M protein during their early stage only. The immunogenicity of the recombinant MVA-M was evaluated in the murine model which revealed an effect of the vector on the Th1/Th2 balance. The vaccine was then tested in cats to evaluate its efficacy in an FIPV 79-1146 challenge. Vaccinated kittens developed FIPV-specific antibodies after immunization, however, none of them was protected against FIPV. Our results suggest a crucial role for the type of poxviral promoter that must be used to induce an effective immune response against FIPV.     

Construction of Full-length cDNA of Recombinant Rabies Virus SRV9 Strain Expressing EgM123 Gene of Echinococcus granulosus

The aim of the experiment was to construct the recombinant rabies virus SRV₉ vaccine strain with EgM123 gene by reverse genetics technology and provide the technical means for effective prevention and control of rabies and hydatidosis in China's agricultural and pastoral areas.In this study,the structural protein N,P and L genes of rabies virus SRV₉ were synthesized using gene synthesis technology,which was based on the complete genome sequence of rabies virus SRV₉ and the fusion fragment of the N-P-M fusion fragment and the rabies G gene,through the carrier of enzyme insertion connection methods,the recombinant rabies virus L gene,N-P-M gene fusion fragment and G+EgM123+eGFP gene fusion fragment were successively recombined on the expression vector pcDNA3.1(-) to construct the full-length cDNA of recombinant rabies virus SRV₉ with EgM123 gene.The synthesized genes were constructed on pcDNA3.1(-) expression vector,and the results of transformation,plasmid digestion and gene sequencing showed that the length of N,P,L,N+P+M and G+EgM123+eGFP gene fragments were 1 365,1 107,6 471,3 160 and 3 256 bp,respectively.The full-length cDNA fragment of EgM123 gene recombinant rabies virus full-length cDNA was 12 465 bp,and the sequencing results of each gene fragment were 100%.In this experiment,the full-length cDNA fragment of recombinant EgM123 rabies and eukaryotic expression vectors of the N,P and L genes of rabies virus were successfully constructed,which could save EgM123 gene recombinant rabies by reverse genetics,it also provided the reference for the development of rabies and hydatid disease combined gene recombinant oral live vaccine.     

细粒棘球绦虫EgM123基因重组狂犬病病毒SRV9株基因组全长cDNA的构建

试验旨在通过反向遗传学技术构建EgM123基因重组狂犬病病毒SRV₉疫苗株,为中国农牧区的狂犬病和包虫病的有效防控提供技术手段。本试验参照狂犬病病毒SRV₉株全基因组序列,利用基因合成技术分别合成狂犬病病毒的结构蛋白N、P、L基因,以及N-P-M基因融合片段和狂犬病病毒G基因、细粒棘球绦虫EgM123基因与增强型绿色荧光蛋白eGFP融合片段基因,通过载体酶切插入连接方法,依次将狂犬病病毒L基因、N-P-M基因融合片段和G+EgM123+eGFP基因融合片段重组于pcDNA3.1（-）表达载体上,构建EgM123基因重组狂犬病病毒SRV₉全长cDNA。将合成的基因分别构建于pcDNA3.1（-）表达载体,经转化、质粒酶切、基因测序鉴定结果表明,狂犬病病毒N、P、L、N+P+M和G+EgM123+eGFP基因片段长度分别为1 365、1 107、6 471、3 160和3 256 bp;EgM123基因重组狂犬病病毒全长cDNA片段长度为12 465 bp,各基因片段测序结果为100%。本试验成功构建了EgM123基因重组狂犬病病毒全长cDNA片段和狂犬病病毒N、P、L基因的真核表达载体,为通过反向遗传学拯救EgM123基因重组狂犬病病毒及狂犬病和包虫病二联基因重组口服活疫苗的研制提供参考。     

Round table on epidemiology and control of fox rabies.

The current epizootic of rabies in Europe has as its main host the fox. Oral vaccination of the fox population has proven to be particularly effective. It is clear that the major components for a successful vaccination programme are a potent and stable vaccine, and an effective baiting system; the latter should attract the target animal but no non-target species. Recently, vaccines of increased stability have been generated; amongst these is a vaccinia recombinant virus which expresses rabies virus glycoprotein. Consequently, both attenuated live virus vaccines and a recombinant vaccine are available for routine field vaccination of the fox population.     

Evaluation of vaccination strategies against infection with feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) based on recombinant viral vectors expressing FIV Rev and OrfA

In recent years it has become clear that cell-mediated immunity is playing a role in the control of lentivirus infections. In particular, cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses have been associated with improved outcome of infection, especially those directed against the regulatory proteins like Rev and Tat, which are expressed early after infection. Therefore, there is considerable interest in lentiviral vaccine candidates that can induce these types of immune responses. In the present study, we describe the construction and characterisation of expression vectors based on recombinant Semliki Forest virus system and modified vaccinia virus Ankara for the expression of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) accessory proteins Rev and OrfA. These recombinant viral vectors were used to immunize cats using a prime-boost regimen and the protective efficacy of this vaccination strategy was assessed after challenge infection of immunized cats with FIV.