Sacred groves of India: repositories of a rich heritage and tools for biodiversity conservation

Sacred groves preserve a rich religious and socio-cultural heritage of Indian biodiversity from primeval times, due to their values. They act as a bridge between man and nature. Groves help to improve soil quality, replenish water resources and are pivotal for biodiversity conservation of plants and animals including rare, endemic, threatened, vulnerable species and ethnobotanical species. Most of India's sacred groves are associated with a deity or a spiritual being, who protects the grove and local people. Vegetation cover of these groves has traditional ethnobotanical value, especially in the field of ethnomedicine, which accounts for the conservation of groves over the years. Numerous plant species from sacred groves are used according to tradition and culture to prevent or cure various health problems. However, modernisation, industrialisation, increased encroachment and misuse of forest resources increasingly threaten sacred groves. These treasures of nature must be conserved by formulating and applying new laws and policies while creating awareness among people about the value of sacred groves. Toward this aim, we review the distribution, ecological and socio-cultural significance of sacred groves of India and strategies to conserve them.     

Diversity,population structure and regeneration status of arboreal species in the four sacred groves of Kushalnagar,Karnataka

Assessment of tree species diversity, structure and regeneration status of four sacred groves of Kushalnagar, southern Karnataka was carried out. The random quadrat method was employed in each grove for enumeration of tree diversity and regeneration status. A total of 98 tree species belonging to 38 families were found from the sampled areas. These groves possess higher diversity and basal area. Some 67 % of species have shown regeneration, while 17 % of species had no regeneration. Another 15 % of species were reappearing or immigrating. It is observed that increased disturbance was directly proportional to number of reappearing or immigrating species and inversely proportional to the diversity in all the sacred groves. Significant impact on diversity, species richness and regeneration status of the flora due to manifold anthropogenic activities have been recorded.     

不同抚育措施对毛竹叶螨种群密度及危害影响的研究

对毛竹叶螨发生的竹林进行劈草和锄草抚育,通过1a观察发现,锄草的竹林中的毛竹叶螨的种群密度和危害高于劈草的竹林。建议竹林抚育要因地制宜,对杂灌不繁茂、土壤较疏松的竹林不劈草。对杂灌繁茂的竹林于8～9月份劈草,尽量不锄草。释放捕食螨防治毛竹叶螨结果表明,捕食螨防治效果留草竹林大于劈草竹林、大于锄草竹林,所以毛竹叶螨的防治要与竹林抚育管理相结合,竹林在释放捕食螨防治毛竹叶螨的当年林下要留草,禁止全垦全劈。     

Agroforestry for high value tree systems in Europe

Most farm-based agroforestry projects focus on the integration of trees on arable or livestock enterprises. This paper focuses on the integration of understorey crops and/or livestock within high value tree systems (e.g., apple orchards, olive groves, chestnut woodlands, and walnut plantations), and describes the components, structure, ecosystem services and economic value of ten case studies of this type of agroforestry across Europe. Although their ecological and socio-economic contexts vary, the systems share some common characteristics. The primary objective of the farmer is likely to remain the value of tree products like apples, olives, oranges, or nuts, or particularly high value timber. However there can still be production, environmental or economic benefits of integrating agricultural crops such as chickpeas and barley, or grazing an understorey grass crop with livestock. Three of the systems focused on the grazing of apple orchards with sheep in the UK and France. The introduction of sheep to apple orchards can minimise the need for mowing and provide an additional source of revenue. Throughout the Mediterranean, there is a need to improve the financial viability of olive groves. The case studies illustrate the possibility of intercropping traditional olive stands with chickpea in Greece, or the intercropping of wild asparagus in high density olive groves in Italy. Another system studied in Greece involves orange trees intercropped with chickpeas. Stands of chestnut trees in North-west Spain can provide feed for pigs when the fruit falls in November, and provide an excellent habitat for the commercial production of edible mushrooms. In Spain, in the production of high quality walnut trees using rotations of up to 50–60 years, there are options to establish a legume-based mixed pasture understorey and to introduce sheep to provide financial and environmental benefits.     

不同分布格局的梁山慈竹产量差异分析

通过对梁山慈竹的自然分布格局调查表明,梁山慈竹在川南分布较广,主要的分布形式有3种:零星独丛、数丛小片、集中成片。不同分布形式下,冠蔸面积比差异较大,其中独丛的冠蔸面积比最大。通过回归分析得出胸径和可利用秆重的回归模型为W=0.102029×D2.388139(W:可利用秆重kg,D:胸径cm)。梁山慈竹产量差异较大,通过聚类分析将梁山慈竹产量分为3类:高产、中产、低产。3种不同分布格局产量由大到小分别是数丛小片>成片>零星独丛,产生差异的主要原因是立地条件和林分密度。     

Litter and fine root dynamics of a relict sacred grove forest at Cherrapunji in north-eastern India

In a sacred grove climax forest (protected by the local Khasi tribe for religious reasons) at Cherrapunji in north-eastern India (mean annual rainfall, 10 372 mm), litter dynamics and related fine root dynamics were studied. Litterfall and its decomposition were very pronounced during the monsoon season, unlike in other rain forests in the region. High levels of nitrogen (2.13–3.58%) phosphorus (0.62–0.91%) and potassium (1.45–1.98%) in the leaf litter of four dominant tree species—Englehardtia spicata Bl., Echinocarpus dasycarpus Benth, Sysygium cuminii (L.) Skeels and Drimycarpus racemosus Hk.f.—suggest that these species help in conserving nutrient elements, thus ensuring their rapid recycling. Different species have different nutrient release patterns which are related to litter quality and seasonal environmental factors.

The highly developed fine root system (14 000 kg ha⁻¹) of which about 48% is located in the 0–10 cm soil depth, is important for nutrient storage and rapid recycling of nutrients. With a productivity of 3200 kg ha⁻¹ per year, the fine root component of the climax sacred grove ecosystem has a key role to play in tight nutrient cycling. It is concluded that these results are important in understanding the fragility of rainforest ecosystems and their management.     

经营干扰对雷竹叶面积指数的影响

根据２０个雷竹标准地调查数据,推导了雷竹叶面积指数的数学模型,结果表明,覆盖保护地栽培使林地退化,林分生长势显著下降,叶面积指数较一般丰产竹林低１０％以上,严重衰退林分要低５０％左右。实施保护地栽培林分应加强营林措施,调整冠层结构,增大叶面积指数,确保竹林持续经营。     

广西喀斯特峰丛洼地山区竹产业现状与可持续发展措施

大化县峰丛洼地山区石多土少平整耕地少,无林山地多,水土流失严重,生态环境恶劣,竹子仅有7属13种,竹林面积340 hm2,其中吊丝竹(D end roca lam us m inor)占66.7%。竹林分散,管理水平差异大,生长量较低,竹材加工技术落后,竹林利用率低,经济效益不高,竹产业发展缓慢。据调查,该区域宜竹面积达到4.92万hm2,适宜发展的竹子资源十分丰富,广西林科院研究出的石山竹林培育技术先进实用,推广应用后竹林产量增幅大,因此石山区竹产业的开发具有很大潜力,应促使山区群众改变观念,重视竹业,选择良种,合理栽培,提高笋、材产量和竹林利用率,充分发挥竹林经济效益,同时加大交通和通讯基础建设,拓宽竹产业市场,确保山区竹产业可持续发展。     

Soil carbon stock in olive groves agroforestry systems under different management and soil characteristics

The atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases have increased to unprecedented levels during last decades, raising concerns about their effect on climate change. Agriculture and land use change play an important role in atmospheric CO₂ emission and fixation, especially by affecting the soil carbon (C) storage. In this context, agroforestry systems (AFSs) could play an important role contributing to climate change mitigation. Given the importance of olive cultivation in the Mediterranean region, it is important to investigate soil C stock in olive groves, and to assess which agronomic practices could improve the soil C stock in these systems. For this reason, a study was conducted in different olive groves, including conventional and organic management, and a typical silvopastoral AFS. Furthermore, an abandoned olive grove and nearby forest were examined as a comparison. Soil samples were collected in each farm and analysed for C content and physico-chemical characteristics. This study indicates that, irrespective of the management, olive groves in the Umbria region of Italy are characterised by a high level of soil C stock if compared to those growing in other areas and to forest ecosystems, indicating that the practices adopted in the area are not negatively affecting soil C storage. A slightly lower soil C stock was measured in the silvopastoral AFS in comparison to the other farms, while high soil C stock was associated with the use of pomace, suggesting that this practice can be used to further increase soil C stock in olive orchards.

     

闽南毛竹林合理经营密度的研究

在闽南毛竹分布区的毛竹林分中建立标准地２４７块，利用柯尔莫哥洛夫的正态分布检验法。结合半峰宽理论，分析计算了闽南毛竹林的合理经营密度为１２００株￣１６５０朱／ｈｍ＾２，为闽南毛竹林持续经营提供了理论依据。     

中国林业传统与林业文化

本文用两分法，将中国林业传统分为保护森林、合理利用森林资源的传统和破坏森林、大量消耗林木的传统。前者是以对动、植物的图腾崇拜为开端；后者是以火的使用为开端。在两种传统的形成与发展中，产生了丰富多彩并具有中国特色的林业文化，包括各类树木及竹文化、花卉文化、园林文化和岩栖山居与森林游乐文化等。     

Aboveground biomass and carbon stock in the largest sacred grove of Manipur,Northeast India

Aboveground biomass and carbon stock in the largest sacred grove of Manipur was estimated for trees with diameter [10 cm at 1.37 m height.The aboveground biomass,carbon stock,tree density and basal area of the sacred grove ranged from 962.94 to 1130.79 Mg ha~(-1),481.47 to 565.40 Mg ha~(-1) C,1240 to 1320 stem ha~(-1) and79.43 to 90.64 m~2 ha~(-1),respectively.Trees in diameter class of 30–40 cm contributed the highest proportion of aboveground biomass(22.50–33.73%).The aboveground biomass and carbon stock in research area were higher than reported for many tropical and temperate forests,suggesting a role of spiritual forest conservation for carbon sink management.     

白夹竹生物学特性观察

经观察，白夹竹鞭梢生长期６－１１月，鞭分布在土壤上层１－１５ｃｍ。鞭年生长１ｍ左右。笋芽３－４月萌动，笋从５月初长出地面至５月底不再出笋，历时２８天左右，每公顷大年笋１００００个左右，上林率为２９．５４％，虫退笋率为４３．９８％，自然 笋率为２６．４８％，上林率，大年高于小年，初期，盛期出笋高于末期出笋。竹笋从出土到长成幼竹，历时６０天左右，竹笋高生长，一般夜晚稍大于白天，笋箨有吐水同象，１９８５     

Semi-wild palm groves reveal agricultural change in the forest region of Guinea

In West Africa, natural regeneration of oil palms (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) can be favoured by agricultural practices. The structure of palm groves may thus reflect the history of land use. In this study, we examined the connection between biophysical factors, land use and the structure and dynamics of semi-wild palm groves in the village of Nienh, in the forest region of Guinea (Forest Guinea), in order to determine to what extent semi-wild palm groves could be considered as an ecological indicator of the history of regional landscapes. Grove management strategies of farmers were also determined and related to farm characteristics. In Nienh, semi-wild palm groves were found in three cropping systems with differing characteristics in each. Palms were scarce in lowland agricultural areas (8 palms ha⁻¹), while they were significantly taller (15.8 m on average) and less dense (36 palms ha⁻¹) in agroforests than in slash-and-burn cropping systems (9.4 m and 55 palms ha⁻¹ respectively). Interviews with farmers showed that it was possible for a farmer to have a global strategy of semi-wild palm grove densification combined with oil palm elimination on a plot scale. The lack of regeneration of palms in agroforests resulted from the almost systematic elimination of young palms by farmers. Conversely, in slash-and-burn cropping systems, young palms were often preserved. As the structure of semi-wild palm groves was partly explained by agricultural practices, it could be used as an ecological indicator of changes in practice in relation to socio-economic context.     

The role of graveyards in species conservation and beta diversity:a vegetation appraisal of sacred habitats from Bannu,Pakistan

Graveyards or sacred groves are often places of natural vegetation protected by spiritual believers because of their sacred beliefs and indigenous culture.A study of graveyards was conducted to determine their role in species conservation,community formation,and associated indicators and species composition using multivariate statistical approaches.It was hypothesized that variations in the age of graveyards would give rise to diverse plant communities under the impact of various edaphic and climatic factors.Quantitative ecological techniques were applied to determine various phytosociological attributes.All the data were put in MS Excel for analysis in PCORD and CANOCO softwares for cluster analysis(CA),two-way cluster analysis(TWCA),indicator species analysis and canonical correspondence analysis.CA and TWCA through Sorenson distance measurements identified five major graveyard plant communities:(1) FicusBougainvillea-Chenopodium;(2) Acacia-Datura-Convolvulus;(3) Ziziphus-Vitex-Abutilon;(4) Acacia-Lantana-Salsola;and(5) Melia-Rhazya-Peganum.Species such as Capparis decidua,Herniaria hirsuta,Salvadora oliedes and Populus euphratica were only present inside graveyards rather than outside and advocate the role of graveyards in species conservation.The impact of different environmental and climatic variables plus the age of the graveyards were also assessed for comparison of plant communities and their respective indicator species.The results indicate that higher chlorine concentration,age of graveyards,low soil electrical conductivity,lower anthropogenic activities,higher nitrogen,calcium and magnesium concentrations in the soil,and sandy soils were the strong environmental variables playing a significant role in the formation of graveyard plant communities,their associated indicators and species distribution patterns.These results could further be utilized to evaluate the role of edaphic and climatic factors,indicator species and conservation management practices at a greater scale.     

Relationship between age,size, fecundity and climatic factors in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Panax wangianus</Emphasis> an endangered medicinal plant in the sacred grove forest of North-East India

Panax wangianus (Syn. Panax pseudoginseng) S. C. Sun (Araliaceae) is a critically endangered, medicinal plant of North-East India. The objective of this study was to determine how plant size affects flowering phenology and to evaluate the effect of climatic factors on flowering, fruiting and seed production. Data on vegetative and repro- ductive characters were monitored from 2016 individuals of Panax wangianus population in Law Lyngdoh, Smit sacred grove in Nongkrem, Shillong, India. Leaflet area was measured by a planimeter. Size variables of both vegetative and reproductive traits in different age classes were measured. Climatic factors were recorded from 2007 to 2009. Age was recorded by counting the number of bud scale scars on the rhizome. Light intensity and relative humidity were measured using a photometer, LiCor Model LI-189 and thermohygrometer respectively. Different climatic variables are correlated with vegetative and reproductive phenological events. Statistical analysis revealed that a strong positive correlation was observed between the age versus vegetative and reproductive characters, except 1%-2% plants showed neoteny. Morphological variations were observed in natural conditions on the basis of the number of prong and carpellate conditions. Phenological status revealed that most of the individuals of the age class 35-50 years and above 50 years contributed the most to flowering, fruiting and seed production. Age class was significant to predict the size of the plant and its reproductive capacity. Climatic factors such as temperature, precipitation and relative humidity show synergistic effect on both the vegetative and reproductive phases in Panax wangianus in the undisturbed Nongkrem sacred grove. The color of flowers of P. wangianus also varied depending upon the sunlight intensity. Therefore, in the view of conservationand management, the age class of 35-50 years and above 50 years is the most important for population sustainability.     

东莞森林生态系统碳储量研究

采用2 km ×2 km的UTM网格取样法对广东省东莞市8个主要森林类型的植被碳库、凋落物碳库和土壤碳库等三大碳库的有机碳储量和碳密度进行了计量、比较分析和评价.结果表明:东莞森林碳储量总量为973.05 ×104 t,森林总平均碳密度为175.86 t·hm-2;其中森林植被总碳储量为161.48 × 104t,平均...     

Natural reforestation is changing spatial patterns of rural mountain and hill landscapes: A global overview

The present landscape structure and function is the result of centuries of changes produced both by natural processes and human driving forces. For centuries many mountain and hillside areas have been the subject of deforestation to create space for agriculture and grazing, although the abandonment of traditional mountain agriculture has produced a natural forest recovery in many regions of the world. The physical changes imposed on the landscape by the development of secondary woodland have brought both positive and negative consequences, depending on the geographical and economic context and on the scale of the sites. Among the ecological problems caused by natural reforestation, one of great interest is the reduction of open spaces resulting in a loss of landscape heterogeneity and mosaic features. This review paper focused its attention on landscape metrics or indices that are frequently used to assess the structural characteristics of the landscape and to monitor changes in land use: mean patch size (MPS), connectivity (CONN), boundary length (BL) and the patch number (NP). Through the analysis of 52 selected papers and 53 case studies, we identified the main gaps in current knowledge, providing directions for further research. Most of the reviewed studies focused only on a portion of the spatial attributes that we were interested in and only 32 case studies reported accurate data both on forest expansion rate and time range analyzed in the study area. We conclude that the study of changes in all the spatial attributes considered within the same case study is a key to explain ecological consequences in mosaic cycles or in stochastic dynamic landscapes that emerged from the interplay of several processes, and to predict and explain their spatial and temporal characteristics. The current knowledge of how changing spatial attributes affect biodiversity, habitats, and ecosystem functions is limited by the scarcity of studies that explicitly consider the shifting in time of the four spatial attributes together.     

Trends in North American and European regeneration research under the ecosystem management paradigm

Forest management on many ownerships in North America and Europe has shifted toward the ecosystem management paradigm. The associated shift toward multiple management objectives and focus on natural development patterns should also be reflected in regeneration research efforts. As new information needs arise, research questions and approaches should be evaluated whether they are still appropriate. Specifically, spatial and temporal scales of research studies need to be expanded to accommodate complex sets of management objectives and constraints, rather than being focused on optimal tree regeneration. At the same time, silviculturists are asked to utilize natural trends as a guide for management, but most natural disturbance studies have focused on stand structures and not the regeneration processes. Criteria commonly used to describe disturbance regimes need to be modified to better guide regeneration research efforts under the ecosystem management paradigm.