Improving mole drainage channel stability in irrigated areas

Mole drains in flood irrigated agriculture can rapidly fail due to high flows of irrigation water entering the mole channel through the soil cracks formed during the moling process. Currently mole drains are formed using a straight leg mole plough that results in rapid irrigation water flow to the mole drain. The use of an angled leg mole plough to reduce the direct inflow of irrigation water and produce more stable mole channels was investigated. The leg of the angled leg mole plough comprised an upper vertical section to which an angled section carrying the mole foot was attached at a 30° angle. The trials were carried out on two contrasting clay soils in a flood irrigated area. One of the soil types was structurally stable on wetting, the other unstable. The quality of the mole channels formed at installation using the straight leg plough was good, but using the angled leg plough were only moderate due to some instability problems with the equipment. This was caused by the mole foot pitching and thus forming an oval channel.After installation, irrigation was applied to the mole channels to ascertain their stability on wetting. The angled leg moles proved more stable than the straight leg moles in the unstable soil. This was due to reduced water flow rates into the channel causing less erosion and to the prevention of the leg slot opening up directly into the mole channel, through shrinkage, during dry periods. The latter prevented significant soil wash and ingress into the channel during the following irrigation. This improved stability is of significant importance in that it may allow the adoption of mole drainage on sodic and swell/shrink soils where previously mole drainage would have been ineffective.In the structurally stable soil, the stability of the angled leg moles was found to be slightly worse than those installed with the straight leg plough. This was probably due to inadequate soil packing in the channel roof during installation.The trial results indicate that mole channels installed with angled leg plough have the potential for much greater stability on sodic and swell/shrink soils than moles installed with current straight leg mole ploughs. Before this potential can be fully achieved further development of the mole ploughing technique is required to ensure that high quality moles are consistently formed at installation. Suggestions are made for future improvements to the mole plough and the moling technique.     

Functioning of mole drains in a clay soil

Observations of water-table fluctuation and drainflow are reported from a field experiment on a heavy clay soil with replicated “mole-drained” and undrained plots. Results from rainfall events indicated that in both treatments the dominant water movement was through the topsoil which in the drained plots was directly linked to the mole channels probably by fissures.     

Effects of moling and cultivation on soil-water and runoff from a drained clay soil

Flow regimes of water draining from replicated mole drained and undrained plots under different cultivation systems were examined in a 10-year study. In 9 out of 10 years, winter cereals were grown with all residues removed by burning. One crop of oil-seed rape was sown in 1985. A 2 year uniformity trial at the start of the experiment, when all plots were tine cultivated, showed that a cultivation pan exerted an important influence on soil-drainage and water movement. Once removed, effective subsurface drainage increased the depth to the water-table by an average of 215 mm over the winter, with up to 90% of the flow occurring through the mole drains. Following the imposition of differential cultivations in 1980, no discernible change in runoff was observed on plots under ploughing compared to the previous tine cultivations. In contrast, direct drilling caused higher surface runoff than ploughing due to surface compaction, although better subsoil structure development led to more rapid vertical movement of water, and especially in the years following mole drainage an increased peak drain-flow of up to 30%. Although drainage decreased the overall flood risk by as much as 16% in a 10 year return period event, cultivations were of considerable importance and direct drilling increased peak runoff by at least 70% from both drained and undrained plots.     

The minimum size of permeable fill used with mole drainage

Laboratory work involving the full scale simulation of flow from a mole drainage channel into a trench filled with permeable material and thence to the pipe drain at the bottom of the trench is described. Four sizes of permeable fill, two trench widths, two pipe types and a wide range of flow rates were used in the investigations.Provided that there was reasonable vertical separation between the mole channel and pipe the flow could be divided into three distinct phases namely; entry from the mole channel, near vertical flow within the permeable fill and entry into the pipe. The most limiting of these was the ability of the fill to accept water from the mole channel.Variation of hydraulic head with flow rate and permeable fill size at critical points of the system is presented in graphical form. It is suggested that permeable fill with a mean diameter of 5 mm is the minimum size acceptable under U.K. conditions and that this result will not be affected by the presence of a small quantity of fine material. The hydraulic conductivity associated with such material, in the absence of fines, is approximately 2500 m/day. Application of the data to other design conditions is also possible.     

Seasonal variations in nitrate leaching in structured clay soils under mixed land use

Nitrate leaching was studied for 2 years in a structured clay soil (Evesham series) under grass, winter wheat and spring barley at N fertilizer inputs of 135–144 kg ha^?1 year^?1. Measurements of soil water to 2 m depth by neutron probe showed that the year could be divided into well defined periods of deficit, separated by a period when the soil was at its winter mean water content. Soil water potentials showed very little gradient for water flow below 1 m, and a persistent convergent zero flux plane at 40–60 cm depth during the autumn wetting-up period (September—November).Nitrate concentration in the drainage increased with discharge rates up to 3–6 mm day^?1. Mean nitrate concentrations were generally highest during intermittent drain-flow in the autumn. Of the total N leached over the 2 years, 23 to 28% (5–7 kg N ha^?1) was lost during this period. The remainder (13–25 kg N ha^?1) was leached during winter and virtually no N was lost in the following spring-early summer. This seasonal pattern of N leaching was interpreted in terms of intermittent flow during rainfall of nitrate-rich water from surface layers, which bypassed the relatively dry soil matrix at 40–60 cm, but was intercepted by natural and artificial drainage channels. Implications for the prediction of N leaching loss based on the concept of excess winter rainfall are discussed. When predicting the start of N leaching in structured clay soils, the soil water status should be assessed from measurements of water potential rather than water content.     

Controlled drainage — effects on drain outflow and water quality

A field experimental project was set up in southern Sweden to assess the effects of controlled drainage on hydrology and environment. Controlled drainage makes it possible to vary the drainage intensity with the variation in drainage requirement during season by controlling the height of a riser in the drain outlet and thus to a certain degree control the amount of outflow of solutes via the drainage system. During periods with low drainage demand, the riser in the drain outlet can be raised and the groundwater level in field will rise up to the level of the riser before the discharge takes place. Three plots, each with an area of 0.2 ha (40 m×50 m) were installed on a loamy sand. One plot was drained by conventional subsurface drainage (CD) and two plots were drained by controlled drainage (CWT). The plots contained four lateral drain tubes, at 10 m spacing and placed at 1 m depth. Each plot was isolated by a double layer of plastic sheeting placed in the back-filled trenches to a depth of 1.6 m to prevent lateral leakage and subsurface interactions. Measurements of precipitation, drain outflow and soil and air temperatures were carried out hourly. Groundwater levels were measured and samples of drain outflow were collected twice a month for nitrogen and phosphorous analyses. Mineral nitrogen contents in soil were measured three times a year.Controlled drainage had a significant hydrological and environmental effect during the 2 years of measurement (1996–1998). Compared with CD, the total drain outflow from CWT was 79% less in Year 1 and 94% in Year 2. The total reduction in nitrate losses with CWT corresponded to the reduced outflow rates. Compared with CD, the total amounts of nitrate in drain outflow were 78% less in Year 1 and 94% in Year 2. The highest concentrations of nitrate were measured at the time of the largest outflow rates. The phosphorous losses were 58% less for CWT as compared to the CD values in Year 1 and 85% less in Year 2. The reduction in nitrogen content in the soil profile during the winter season was 60–70% less in CWT than in CD.     

暗管与鼠道组合排水改造渍害稻田试验

对湖积平原区的粘土渍害稻田,采用暗管与鼠道双层组合排水,在小麦、油菜生育期的雨季中,鼠道能有效地排除稻田的耕层滞水,减小田间地下水位上涨幅度;雨停后,在暗管排水作用下,地下水能迅速回降到离田面0.6～0.7m;稻田淹灌期,鼠道排水可增加两暗管之间的入渗强度,排泄土壤中有害物质。在渍害稻田改造中,适当加大暗管间距(24m),中间辅以鼠道排水,可起到工程投资省,改土效果明显,增产效益大的作用。     

Shallow subsurface drainage in an irrigated vertisol with a perched water table

Waterlogging and salinity are reducing the productivity of irrigated agriculture on clay soils in south east Australia. We compared five drainage treatments: (1) undrained control (Control); (2) mole drains (Mole); (3) mole drains formed beneath gypsum-enriched slots (GES) (Mole + GES); (4) shallow pipe drains installed beneath GES (Shallow Pipe); (5) deep pipe drains (Deep Pipe). The experiment was set out on a vertisol and our measurements were made during the growth of an irrigated onion crop.

Over the 3 months before the spring irrigations commenced, the perched water table on the Control was less than 400 mm below the soil surface for 27% of the time, whereas the shallow drainage treatments (Treatments 2, 3 and 4) reduced this time to less than 4%. During the irrigation season, the perched water table on the Mole + GES treatment rose above 400 mm for 3% of the time. The perched water table on the Mole treatment was above 400 mm for 14% of the time, compared with 19% of the time on the Control. The Deep Pipes were less effective in reducing the depth to the perched water table, both before and during the irrigation period.

Mole drains increased the gas-filled porosity above the drains. However, the gas-filled porosity remained below reported levels for optimum root growth. Although the drains effectively drained excess water, and lowered the water table, the hydraulic gradient was insufficient to remove all of water from the macropores. Gypsum enriched slots above the mole drains increased the gas-filled porosity in the slots but the drainable porosity in the undisturbed soil appeared to be inadequate for optimum root growth, even though some drainage occurred near the slots.

Discharge from the shallow drainage treatments averaged 58 mm for each irrigation, and was considerably more than the amount required to drain the macropores. The mole channels were in reasonably good condition at the end of the irrigation season, with at least 70% of the cross-sectional area of the channel open.

Shallow subsurface drains increased onion yield by about 38%. For each day the water table was above 400 mm, the yield declined by 0.23 tonnes per hectare. Farmer adoption of shallow subsurface drainage will depend on the long-term economic benefits (influenced by the longevity of the mole channels and yields response) and the need to develop more sustainable management practices.     

鼠道排水是治理渍害的有效途径

鼠道虽比暗管的排水效果差些,寿命短些,但施工方便,投资少,见效快,特别值得在南方粘质土地区大力推广应用。文章介绍了鼠道排水的原理和适用条件;以大量的试验数据为根据,证明了鼠道排水的治渍效果;根据不同情况,确定鼠道的合理布局。     

Simulated effect of drainage water management operational strategy on hydrology and crop yield for Drummer soil in the Midwestern United States

The hypothetical effects of drainage water management operational strategy on hydrology and crop yield at the Purdue University Water Quality Field Station (WQFS) were simulated using DRAINMOD, a field-scale hydrologic model. The WQFS has forty-eight cropping system treatment plots with 10 m drain spacing. Drain flow observations from a subset of the treatment plots with continuous corn (Zea mays L.) were used to calibrate the model, which was then used to develop an operational strategy for drainage water management. The chosen dates of raising and lowering the outlet during the crop period were 10 and 85 days after planting, respectively, with a control height of 50 cm above the drain (40 cm from the surface). The potential effects of this operational strategy on hydrology and corn yield were simulated over a period of 15 years from 1991 to 2005. On average, the predicted annual drain flows were reduced by 60% (statistically significant at 95% level). This is the most significant benefit of drainage water management since it may reduce the nitrate load to the receiving streams. About 68% of the reduced drain flow contributed to an increase in seepage. Drainage water management increased the average surface runoff by about 85% and slightly decreased the relative yield of corn crop by 0.5% (both are not statistically significant at 95% level). On average, the relative yield due to wet stress (RYw) decreased by 1.3% while relative yield due to dry stress (RYd) increased by 1%. Overall, the relative crop yield increased in 5 years (within a range of 0.8-6.9%), decreased in 8 years (within a range of 0.2-5.5%), and was not affected in the remaining 2 years. With simulated drainage water management, the water table rose above the conventional drainage level during both the winter and the crop periods in all years (except 2002 crop season). The annual maximum winter period rise ranged between 47 cm (1995) and 87 cm (1992), and the annual maximum crop period rise ranged between no effect (2002) and 47 cm (1993).     

河岸浸没预测及排水沟效果研究

针对浸没预测忽略上边界入渗补给和蒸发等问题的缺陷，利用Visual Modflow地下水模拟软件，建立了非稳定流数学模型，设定合理的边界条件，重点探讨了入渗系统和蒸发系统的确定方法和步骤。利用建立的数学模型，模拟计算浸没范围，并设置排水沟边界模拟排水效果。对多层地基，得出3.5m深排水沟可以将浸没范围控制在距堤脚100m范围内的结论。     

Evaluation of the DRAINMOD-N II model for predicting nitrogen losses in a loamy sand under cultivation in south-east Sweden

The DRAINMOD-N II model (version 6.0) was evaluated for a cold region in south-east Sweden. The model was field-tested using four periods between 2002 and 2004 of climate, soil, hydrology and water quality data from three experimental plots, planted to a winter wheat-sugarbeet-barley-barley crop rotation and managed using conventional and controlled drainage. DRAINMOD-N II was calibrated using data from a conventional drainage plot, while data sets from two controlled drainage plots were used for model validation. The model was statistically evaluated by comparing simulated and measured drain flows and nitrate-nitrogen (NO₃-N) losses in subsurface drains. Soil mineral nitrogen (N) content was used to evaluate simulated N dynamics. Observed and predicted NO₃-N losses in subsurface drains were in satisfactory agreement. The mean absolute error (MAE) in predicting NO₃-N drainage losses was 0.16 kg N ha⁻¹ for the calibration plot and 0.21 and 0.30 kg N ha⁻¹ for the two validation plots. For the simulation period, the modelling efficiency (E) was 0.89 for the calibration plot and 0.49 and 0.55 for the validation plots. The overall index of agreement (d) was 0.98 for the calibration plot and 0.79 and 0.80 for the validation plots. These results show that DRAINMOD-N II is applicable for predicting NO₃-N losses from drained soil under cold conditions in south-east Sweden.     

Subsurface drainage results for over-wetted soils of the Latvian S.S.R.

In the Latvian S.S.R. experiments on hydrological drainage action have been carried out for some 16–17 years on 200 drainage fields. It is found that the average annual removal of excess water is 150–250 mm and, in particularly moist years, 400–500 mm and more. Drainage results in a considerable reduction of the duration of over-wetting and over-flooding of the active soil layer. The importance of drainage in the control of the soil water regime is the greatest in the winter and spring periods. The most effective draining and the best economic indices have been achieved by applying deep systematic drainage. For sandy and loamy soils, a 1.3–1.5 m deep drainage installation and use of larger diameter drain pipes are recommended. It is expedient to determine the drain spacing by combining the hydromechanical and the empirical methods, making the most of the data of many years of observations of the action of drainage systems.     

鼠道在砂姜黑土地区排灌两用的探讨

鼠道排水治理涝渍,在国内外已广泛应用,鼠道用于灌溉尚无借鉴,在既要排水又需灌溉的淮北砂姜黑土地区,作者对鼠道排灌两用的可行性及两用鼠道的适宜间距、深度等进行了探讨,并提出了提高排灌两用鼠道寿命及效益的措施。     

Drainage effects on spatial variability of soil electrical conductivity in a vertisol

Spatial variability of soil electrical conductivity (EC) is characterized in a 33 ha plot before and 2 years after drainage initiation. Measurements of EC were made in a square grid at 50 m spacing and at 0–20, 20–40, 40–60 and 0–60 cm depths. Both mean EC values and coefficients of variation (CV) are reduced after drainage. The frequency histograms show that EC fits to a lognormal distribution before drainage, whereas it seems to be normally distributed after drainage initiation. The bimodality found in histograms before drainage was not observed after it. Spatial structure of soil EC is strongest at 0–20 cm before drainage and it is weaker at greatest depths. Nevertheless, the semi-variogram at 40–60 cm after drainage shows a more remarkable spatial structure. EC spatial variability shows anisotropy before drainage, which was related to topography. However, directional semi-variograms after drainage did not show such anisotropy. In conclusion, drainage not only reduces EC values, but also notably changes EC spatial variability.     

Water balance and nitrate leaching in an irrigated maize crop in SW Spain

During 3 consecutive years (1991–1993) a field experiment was conducted in an intensively irrigated agricultural soil in SW Spain. The main objective of this study was to determine the water flow and nitrate (N0₃) leaching, below the root zone, under an irrigated maize crop and after the growing season (bare soil and rainy period). The experiment was carried out on a furrow-irrigated maize crop at two different nitrogen (N)-fertilization rates, one the highest traditionally used by farmers in the region (about 500 kg N ha⁻¹ per year) and the other one-third of the former (170 kg N ha⁻¹ per year). The aim was to obtain data that could be used to propose modifications in N-fertilization to maintain crop yield and to prevent the degradation of the environment. The terms for water balance (crop evapotranspiration, drainage and soil water storage) and nitrate leaching were determined by intensive field monitoring of the soil water content, soil water potential and extraction of the soil solution by a combination of neutron probe, tensiometers and ceramic suction cups. Nitrogen uptake by the plant and N0₃-N produced by mineralization were also determined.The results showed that, in terms of water balance, crop evapotranspiration was similar at both N-fertilization rates used. During the irrigation period, drainage below the root zone was limited. Only in 1992 did the occurrence of rainfall during the early growing period, when the soil was wet from previous irrigation, cause considerable drainage. Nitrate leaching during the whole experimental period amounted to 150 and 43 kg ha⁻¹ in the treatments with high and low N-fertilization, respectively. This occurred mainly during the bare soil and rainy periods, except in 1992 when considerable nitrate leaching was observed during the crop season due to the high drainage. Nitrate leaching was not so high during the bare soil period as might have been expected because of the brought during the experimental period. A reduction of N-fertilization thus strongly decreased nitrate leaching without decreasing yield.     

Drainage and desalinization of heavy clay soil in Portugal

The Leziria Grande area consists mainly of poorly drained, saline clay soils of marine origin. Three experimental fields were laid out to find whether subsurface drainage can be effective in lowering the groundwater table and improving desalinization.Subsurface drainage results in a lower groundwater table than does surface drainage. With increasing spacing, the groundwater remains at a higher level for longer periods, which is expressed here by the sum of exceedances of the groundwater table above 30 cm during winter.Soil salinity, expressed as EC_1:2, and sodicity, expressed as E.S.P., decreased during the first 3 years, in which precipitation varied between 600 and 750 mm and the average drain outflow was about 250 mm. The leaching efficiency decreased with time, indicating that the removal of salt is a slow process in fine-textured soil.Application of gypsum lowered the E.S.P. The infiltration rate and the drain outflow increased. Although the total amount of salts in the drainwater was 40% higher than for the untreated plots, no lower EC_1:2 values were found. This is ascribed to spatial variability in soil salinity.     

Surface drainage requirement of crops: Application of a piecewise linear model for evaluating submergence tolerance

Crop tolerance to land submergence is an important criterion for designing a surface drainage system for agricultural lands. This paper collates the available data from various places in India related to the studies on the submergence tolerance of crops. The paper hypothesizes that a piecewise linear model could be used to describe crop response to land submergence. According to this hypothesis, there would be no yield decline for a few initial days of submergence. If submergence continues beyond this period then there would be linear decline in yield. The unknown parameters in the model are: optimum yield, threshold time and the slope which represents the per cent yield reduction per day of additional submergence beyond the threshold.Data in respect of wheat, pigeon peas, cowpeas, pearlmillet, maize and groundnuts indicate that the model describes the data well, although in many cases the threshold is 0.0. The yield reduction varies from 5.3 to 23.2% for each day of submergence beyond the threshold. It appears that to allow for more than 1–2 days of submergence will result in more than 10% reducation in yield of dryfoot crops. For the maize crop, the seedling stage is the most sensitive stage followed by the silking stage. The grain formation stage is the least sensitive, although even at this stage the threshold is 0.0 and yield reduction is 9.3% for each day of submergence beyond the threshold. The data for 9 test crops from Texas and Venezuela were well described by the model. It is concluded that the piecewise linear model is a useful tool for describing submergence tolerance of crops and for working out surface drainage requirements for a given level of yield reduction. Frequency analysis of the daily rainfall data from some selected locations indicates that there is every likelihood of submergence at most of the stations. It is suggested that there is an urgent need for developing wet farming techniques analogous to dry farming techniques.     

国产190A型柴油机系统可靠性寿命试验研究

应用可维修系统随机故障过程模型理论，对国产190A型柴油机进行了可靠性寿命试验。提出并论证了柴油机系统可靠性寿命分布规律，建立了柴油机系统在早期故障期、偶然故障期、耗损故障期的寿命模型。提出了柴油机可维修系统在整个寿命期内其故障曲线为典型的溶盆曲线，同时给出了上述3个典型故障寿命阶段的可靠性指标。     

Conjunctive use of saline and non-saline irrigation waters in semi-arid regions

In arid and semi-arid regions, effluent from sub-surface drainage systems is often saline and during the dry season its disposal poses an environmental problem. A field experiment was conducted from 1989 to 1992 using saline drainage water (EC=10.5–15.0 dS/m) together with fresh canal water (EC=0.4 dS/m) for irrigation during the dry winter season. The aim was to find if crop production would still be feasible and soil salinity would not be increased unacceptably by this practice. The experimental crops were a winter crop, wheat, and pearl-millet and sorghum, the rainy season crops, grown on a sandy loam soil. All crops were given a pre-plant irrigation with fresh canal water. Subsequently, the wheat crop was irrigated four times with different sequences of saline drainage water and canal water. The rainy season crops received no further irrigation as they were rainfed. Taking the wheat yield obtained with fresh canal water as the potential value (100%), the mean relative yield of wheat irrigated with only saline drainage water was 74%. Substitution of canal water at first post-plant irrigation and applying thereafter only saline drainage water, increased the yield to 84%. Cyclic irrigations with canal and drainage water in different treatments resulted in yields of 88% to 94% of the potential. Pearl-millet and sorghum yields decreased significantly where 3 or 4 post-plant irrigations were applied with saline drainage water to previous wheat crop, but cyclic irrigations did not cause yield reduction. The high salinity and sodicity of the drainage water increased the soil salinity and sodicity in the soil profile during the winter season, but these hazards were eliminated by the sub-surface drainage system during the ensuing monsoon periods. The results obtained provide a promising option for the use of poor quality drainage water in conjunction with fresh canal water without undue yield reduction and soil degradation. This will save the scarce canal water, reduce the drainage water disposal needs and associated environmental problems.