Participatory technology development in agroforestry: methods from a pilot project in Zimbabwe

An on-farm agroforestry pilot project was initiated by the Zimbabwe Forestry Commission in 1988. The main objective of the project is to investigate a range of options to solve problems of woodland depletion faced by small-scale farmers. This paper describes the first two years of on-farm experimentation. The first season's trials are described, and the rationale for moving towards an approach of greater farmer participation in the research process is given. Steps taken to promote experimental tree planting on farms are described, and methods used are illustrated by examples from the project. Critical awareness-raising techniques, steamming from Freirian philosophy, have been central to the methods. The need for a partnership between formal and informal farmer-based research is discussed, as is a model for agroforestry research and development. The latter is proposed in a way that formal research develops the components of agroforestry practices, whilst farmers are encouraged to experiment with a combination of these components in order to develop practices appropriate to local conditions.     

Forest villages: an agroforestry approach to rehabilitating forest land degraded by shifting cultivation in Thailand

The Forest village scheme was introduced by the Forest Industries Organisation (FIO) of Thailand in 1967 as an attempt to stop further spread of the fast increasing shifting cultivation and deforestation in the country. The underlying princple of the scheme is to relate reforestation with social welfare of the people involved. It is essentially a modification of the traditional taungya method of plantation establishment.The salient aspect of the scheme is to induce the shifting cultivators to settle down in villages where each family is given tenure over a plot of land to construct a house and develop a homegarden around it. The farmers are required to help establish and maintain forest plantations, in which they are permitted to raise agricultural crops during the first three years of its establishment. The farmers are also given free medical and educational facilities, and technical advice on crop and livestock husbandry. They can also earn cash rewards for successful plantation establishment.Although the scheme has not achieved its full target in terms of area covered and number of families settled, it is proving to be a successful method of luring people away from destructive shifting cultivation. The approach is applicable to other countries and regions with similar land-use problems and socio-cultural background.The paper also examines the constraints to the effective working of the scheme, provides some simple suggestions for improving its functioning and identies some of the issues that can easily be tackled by research.     

Transformation of degraded farmlands to agroforestry in Zongi Village,Ethiopia

The interaction of human land use, steep slopes and erosion has been a serious threat to Ethiopia’s ecosystems. Community’s initiated land rehabilitation programmes such as tree regeneration on farm lands, hill-side planting and exclosures have been established to rejuvenate debilitated lands. To characterize, map out and monitor such transformations, this study was carried out in Zongi, Tigray Region of northern Ethiopia. The study used an integration of remote sensing data, field observations and information from key informants and randomly selected respondents to analyse the land-use/land cover (LULC) changes from 1984 to 2013. Conventional method of supervised image classification was used for landsat image of 2013 while hybrid method of unsupervised and supervised classification was employed for landsat images of 1984 and 1999. The results revealed significant modifications and conversion of LULC types over the multi-dates. Analysis of the 29-year change matrix revealed that 78.5% of the land underwent significant changes in LULC. The major changes to agroforestry land use(LU)types between 1984 and 2013 were conversion of intensively cultivated land to moderately cultivated land (32.1%) and sparsely cultivated land (11.8%). The drivers of changes were linked to the introduction of land rehabilitation initiatives, government consensus (via agricultural extension) with the community, which were complemented by growing awareness of landowners. This study corroborates the necessity of community involvement and participation to improve their land use systems for environmental sustainability and sustainable livelihood.     

林农复合种植模式在城市绿地中的应用

通过对城市绿地的功能和林农复合种植模式的研究,将"林农复合"理念引入城市绿地建设,构建具有生产、生态、景观和社会文化交流的多功能相互关联、紧密相连、和谐的景观绿地,进一步完善和拓宽了城市绿地系统,同时在城郊结合部营造城市中的田园景观提供了案例。       

Participatory research in agroforestry: learning from experience and expanding our repertoire

Participation has been widely touted as “the answer” to a number of problems facing agroforestry research programs. It is not enough, however, to involve rural people as workers and informants in research endeavors defined by outsiders. A truly collaborative approach will depend upon our ability to broaden our definitions of research and participation, to accommodate a wide spectrum of land users and local knowledge, and to expand our repertoire of research methods. This paper presents a critique of facile approaches to participation, outlines a more inclusive framework for who participates on what terms, and reviews a variety of methods that address the complex realities of rural life and landscapes. The final section of the paper suggest a multi-institutional model that combines the complementary strengths of several types of organizations in participatory field research.     

Streuobst: a traditional agroforestry system as a model for agroforestry development in temperate Europe

The development of agroforestry for industrialised countries can be furthered by an understanding of the history and present functioning of traditional systems. In temperate Europe, fruit trees were traditionally grown on agricultural land undersown with crops or managed grassland (Streuobst). The historical evolution of this agroforestry system has been driven by the interaction of technical progress, market development and intervention by public authorities. Streuobst reached its peak in the 1930s, but has since been in continuous decline due to the development of intensively managed dwarf-tree orchards. However, even today, it still occupies approximately one million hectares in 11European countries and has a strong impact on the European fruit market. The profitability of streuobst is relatively poor due to its low labour productivity, but it has advantageous ecological and socio-cultural features, particularly in terms of biological diversity and landscape aesthetics. Accordingly, it finds strong acceptance among the general public, such that subsidised eradication programs have been abandoned and, in a number of countries, streuobst is now supported by non-governmental organisations and by state conservation policies. Modern agroforestry in temperate, industrialised countries should be oriented towards the creation of similar ecological and socio-cultural benefits in order to receive public support as a land-use system. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Lessons for research,capacity development and policy in agroforestry for development

Since its foundation in the 1970’s, agroforestry science has evolved from setting its concepts, research approaches and flagship technologies towards its increasing contribution to ecologically sound land use, food security and income generation in the global North and South. The Third World Congress on Agroforestry held in Delhi in April 2014 continued contributed to this evolution by focusing, beyond the scientific realm, on the implementation of findings by convening ad-hoc stakeholders and subjects. Accordingly, some of the congress sessions dealt with key aspects of how agroforestry can foster and contribute to development. The special issue “Lessons for research, capacity development and policy in agroforestry for development” compiles approaches, experiences and overall lessons from (i) research, (ii) capacity development, and (iii) policy-making, capable to promote and generate developmental change through agroforestry. This introductory paper outlines the rationale for the three areas and the contributing articles.     

Resource development for professional education and training in agroforestry

The development of agroforestry education and training is hampered by a shortage of information on agroforestry practices and systems and by institutional constraints which limit effective transfer of existing knowledge. Generation of knowledge through research and the effective sharing of information on agroforestry are critical to the building of a solid resource base for agroforestry education. Networks of individuals and institutions can accelerate the development of resources for agroforestry education. Primary activities of an agroforestry network would include the development and dissemination of training materials on agroforestry, curriculum development and training of teaching staff. Critical considerations for the successful establishment and operation of a network include: (1) focusing the network on a problem and identifying sufficient interest, (2) personnel requirements such as an institution with a strong commitment, and (3) other resource requirements such as funds for network meetings, publications and research.     

封山育林:恢复山区生态环境的好措施

辽西干旱、气候恶劣的主要因素是生态环境破坏严重,不能形成区域水分循环。为解决这个问题,必须恢复生态环境。恢复植被最佳方法就是封山育林。     

Historical development of agroforestry in China

In China both agriculture and agroforestry originated in forests and developed side by side from their very beginnings. As revealed by archaeological evidence from ancient times, ancestral Chinese inhabited forests where they sheltered themselves from external hazards and lived on the edible parts of plants and animals through hunting and gathering activities.As early as the New Stone Age (7000–8000 years B.C.), fire was commonly used to burn the forests for slash-and-burn cultivation, which is a primitive form of agroforestry. Along with the rapid growth of population, the annexing of tribes, the collapse of clan society and the development of the slavery system, the nomadic mode of slash-and-burn farming evolved into settlement farming in the Xia Dynasty (2000-1600 B.C.). Peasants then engaged in settled cultivation.During the Shang and West Zhou Dynasty (1600-800 B.C.), perpetual settlement farming encouraged the development of private land-ownership. Peasants planted trees in or around the crop fields and grew fruit plants, vegetables and farmed domestic animals in their home yards for self-sufficiency. Since then, various forms of agroforestry have gradually developed and laid the fundamental framework of the Chinese small-farming economy for more than 3000 years.There has been a rapid growth of population in China over since the 1950s. At the same time, the area of arable land has decreased drastically and the environment has degraded rapidly as industrial development has taken place. The traditional labour-consuming and ineffective agroforestry management practices have not adapted to the current situation. In view of economic, ecological and social benefits, conversion of mono-biological production into a trinity system of agriculture, processing and marketing is suggested and planned experimentally. Such a management system, known as modern agroforestry, could be very beneficial to the development of modern China's rural economy and environmental conservation.     

Temporal analysis of agroforestry systems for rural development

Temporal analysis is introduced as a method to assess the suitability of agroforestry projects for meeting rural development objectives. This form of analysis provides a common base for examining social, economic, ecological, and managerial aspects of agroforestry systems.Temporal analysis begins by describing projects and the activities comprising them for both an agroforestry system and the local population. Factors constraining the sequence of activities are then examined. The assumptions and values regarding the past, present, or future are also analyzed for all groups involved in the agroforestry system. The range of goal oriented behavior affecting scale and duration of projects may be dependent on this time horizon.By understanding these factors, the changes in activities of a social system that may result from a proposed agroforstry innovation can be anticipated. The nature of these changes and their perception by the local population can be evaluated.     

韩国农林科技情况考察报告

通过对韩国山野菜发展，林木育种水平，树木园建设等方面科技发展与 动态的考察，根据延边实际情况，提出了林业发展对策。     

退耕还林与山区经济发展：—江油市敬元乡农村经济现状调查及农业产业结构调整的构想

退耕还林工程现已在我省正式启动，这项工程的实施不仅是对长江、黄河中下游地区的生态环境的保护和建设的贡献，同时也将给山区的人民群众营造一个良好生存环境。退耕还林工程是建国以来国家对人口相对稀少的山区投入最多最大的工程项目，也是山区农民能直接从中获益最多的工程项目，使山区得以休养生息，国家给予的一系列的优惠政策，保障了山区农民的基本生活，为山区调整农业产业结构，因地制宜的发展经济林、发展养殖业、开发旅游业等创造了有利条件。     

The role of land tenure in agroforestry: lessons from Benin

In this article the relationship between land tenure and agroforestry is analysed drawing on a case study from Benin. It is argued that tenants, the landless and the majority of women are disadvantaged compared with landowners in terms of their ability to adopt agroforestry systems. This is due to a lack of land resources, tenure insecurity and restrictions in planting perennial crops. State interventions and conflicts between farmers and pastoralists further limit land tenure security of the rural population and thus reduce the willingness of peasants to invest on a long-term basis and to protect natural resources. The article concludes with some implications for policy and project interventions in the field of land tenure systems.

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Résumé Dans cet article, les relations entre droit foncier et agroforesterie sont analysées dans le cas du Bénin. Le fait que les locataires, les paysans sans terre et la plupart des femmes sont désavantagés par rapport aux propriétaires parce qu'ils ne sont pas en mesure d'adopter des systèmes agroforestiers est mis en evidence. Cela est dû au manque de ressources foncières, à l'incertitude de l'utilisation de la terre et aux restrictions sur la plantation des cultures pérennes. Des interventions étatiques et des conflits fonciers entre agriculteurs sédentaires et éleveurs restreignent la sécurité foncière de la population rurale et réduisent la disposition des paysans à investir à long terme et à protéger les ressources naturelles. A la fin de l'article les conclusions pour des interventions politiques et pour la planification des projets dans le domaine du droit foncier sont identifiées.

     

Exploring transformational outcomes from donor investments in agroforestry research for development

Agroforestry Systems - While many agroforestry research projects contribute to improving food security, livelihoods and management of natural resources, few have had a significant role in achieving...     

Soil property changes in contour hedgerow systems on sloping land in the Philippines

The impact of contour hedgerow systems on soil sustainability under acidic conditions has been widely criticized. A study was undertaken to determine the effects of management and hedgerow species on soil properties. Cassia spectabilis (a non-N-fixing tree legume), Gliricidia sepium (an N-fixing tree legume), Pennisetum purpureum (a forage grass), and Stylosanthes guyanensis (a forage legume) contour barriers were compared with an open field (non-hedgerow treatment) over 1 cowpea and 2 rice seasons. Three types of management viz.: prunings applied + N₀P₀K₀, prunings applied + N₅₀P₂₀K₂₀ and prunings removed + N₅₀P₂₀K₂₀ were used as subplot treatments. The soils were strongly acidic (pH 4.5) and classified as clay Orthoxic Palehumult. Cassia performed better than the other species in terms of pruning biomass, N and P contributions over a period of 20 months. There was a combined positive effect of pruning biomass and fertilizers on rice and cowpea yields in Pennisetum and Gliricidia systems, while a tendency towards a positive effect of pruning biomass on rice was found in the Cassia system. The pruning biomass and/or fertilizer application did not significantly influence the top soil organic C, N and available P in the hedgerow systems. Soil bulk density was significantly reduced by the application of Cassia prunings after 12 months. Organic C, N and P dynamics indicated that in situ pruning biomass was not sufficient to maintain their level in the soil. But the cassia systems with prunings applied + N₅₀P₂₀K₂₀ experienced the lowest degradation in soil organic C (2.1 t ha⁻¹) followed by the Gliricidia systems (4.1 t ha⁻¹). The overall results imply that the application of pruning and inorganic fertilizer is imperative to conserve soil resources, and non- N-fixing tree species can exert a significant advantage in biomass and thereby in soil N-recycling under acidic soil. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Comparative productivity of Prosopis cineraria and Tecomella undulata based agroforestry systems in degraded lands of Indian Desert

Tree-crop interactions were monitored by measuring tree growth characters of Prosopis cineraria L. and Tecomella undulata L. and yields of Vigna radiata (L) in agroforestry systems in degraded lands of Indian Desert. Potential competition for resource between the trees and associated crop was analyzed by measuring soil water contents, soil organic matters and NH₄-N at different depths of soil layers i.e., 0–25 cm, 25–50 cm and 50–75 cm in the experimental plots. The plots size were 16 m × 18 m (D₁), 20 m × 18 m (D₂) and 32 m × 18 m (D₃) with tree densities of 208, 138 and 104 trees·ha⁻¹ after June 2002, respectively. Results showed that tree height increased by 3% to 7% during June 2002 to June 2004. Collar diameter increased by 30% and 11% in D₁, 23% and 19% in D₂ and 18% and 36% in D₃ plots, respectively, in P. cineraria and T. undulata in two years period. The increase in crown diameter was 9% to 18% in P. cineraria and 11% to 16% in T. undulata. Tree growth was relatively greater in 2002 than in 2003. Yield of V. radiata increased linearly from D₁ to D₃ plots. Lowest soil water content at 1 m distance from tree base indicated greater utilization of soil water within the tree rooting zone. Concentrations of soil organic matters and NH₄-N were the highest (p<0.05) in 0–25 cm soil layer. P. cineraria was more beneficial than T. undulata in improving soil conditions and increasing crop yield by 11.1% and thus more suitable for its integration in agricultural land. The yield of agricultural crop increased when density of tree species was appropriate (i.e., optimum tree density), though it varied with tree size and depended upon resource availability. The result indicated bio-economic benefits of optimum density of P. cineraria and T. undulata over traditional practices of maintaining random trees in farming system in arid zones. Biography: G. Singh (1961– ), male, Scientist E and Head, Division of Forest Ecology, Arid Forest Research Institute, New Pali Road, Jodhpur-342005, India.     

Financial analysis of agroforestry land uses and its implications for smallholder farmers livelihood improvement in Ethiopia

A study was conducted in central highland Ethiopia to: (1) assess the financial feasibility and relative financial attractiveness of three agroforestry practices (small-scale woodlot, homestead tree and shrub growing and boundary tree and shrub growing); (2) evaluate the impacts of implementation of these land uses on farm households income and (3) identify the constraints for the implementation and expansion of the agroforestry practices. Then, 82 different land uses (21 small-scale woodlots, 35 homesteads and 26 boundary plantings) which were older than 15 years and established by the current owner were selected for the financial analysis. The input and output data were filled in a data sheet by face-to-face interview with the owners. The results showed that small-scale woodlot is the most profitable agroforestry practice followed by boundary plantings and homesteads. An ex-ante analysis of implementing the agroforestry practices showed that with minimum land area allocated for the practices, a household can generate net discounted revenues ranging from 5,908 to 26,021 Ethiopian Birr (532–2,342 USD) in 15 years at 10 % interest rate. Hence, the expansion of such agroforestry practices has a vital effect on farm household’s income. Lack of proper planning and poor in-depth understanding about roles of trees and shrubs for household’s income, land and seedling shortage, financial constraints and labor scarcity were identified as major problems for the expansion of agroforestry practices in the area. A thorough extension service comprising both efficient land resources utilization and proper planning practices could enhance the expansion of agroforestry practices and thereby positively influence the farmer’s livelihood.     

Comparative productivity of Prosopis cineraria and Tecomella undulata based agroforestry systems in degraded lands of Indian Desert

Tree-crop interactions were monitored by measuring tree growth characters of Prosopis cineraria L.and Tecomella undulata L.and yields of Vigna radiata(L) in agroforestry systems in degraded lands of Indian Desert.Potential competition for resource between the trees and associated crop was analyzed by measuring soil water contents, soil organic matters and NH4-N at different depths of soil layers i.e., 0-25 cm, 25-50 cm and 50-75 cm in the experimental plots.The plots size were 16 m × 18 m(D1), 20 m × 18 m(D...