人工湿地的基质及其深度对生活污水中氮磷去除效果的影响

目前人工湿地常用的基质一般为土壤、河砂和砾石,这类基质净化效率低,容易吸附饱和,且除磷脱氮的能力不高,致使出水中氮、磷浓度较高。针对于此,本试验研究选择了沸石、草炭、蛭石、页岩、砂子5种基质,利用两组模拟土柱系统模拟人工湿地对生活污水的处理,主要研究基质种类及其深度对生活污水处理效果的影响,并根据各基质对生活污水中总氮（TN）、总磷（TP）的去除率进行方差分析及基质对污水处理能力的显著差异性分析。实验结果表明：（1）各基质去除TN的能力差别不明显,沸石、蛭石、页岩的处理效果稍好,对TP的去除能力依次为草炭〉页岩〉砂子〉沸石〉蛭石。（2）基质深度的增加对2个指标处理效果的影响不同。对TN来说,深度对各基质的处理效果无明显影响。对TP来说,当深度在100cm以内时,5种基质对TP的去除率均随深度的增加而明显增大,当深度超过100cm后,各基质的这种增大趋势都不太明显。因此,对这2个指标而言,基质的填充深度应为100cm。     

通风速率对土壤中四氯化碳污染物去除效率的影响研究

某重要岩溶地下水源地受到四氯化碳的严重污染,为此采用土柱通风试验模拟土壤气相抽提（SVE）净化四氯化碳污染物的过程,对通风速率为40mL·min-1和70mL·min-1两种条件下土壤四氯化碳的去除过程进行了试验模拟研究。结果表明,土柱通风能有效去除土壤中的四氯化碳污染物,通风条件下土壤中四氯化碳的去除过程符合一级反应动力学,土壤中四氯化碳浓度C的对数值ln[C（/μg·L-1）]与时间t呈良好的线性关系,相关系数均在0.95以上。通风速率为40mL·min-1的土柱A各取样口四氯化碳去除反应速率常数k值在0.0132～0.0155h-1之间,通风速率为70mL·min-1的土柱B各取样口k值在0.0178～0.0222h-1之间,说明增大通风速率能提高土壤中四氯化碳污染物的去除效率。     

Retention of Staphylococci and Total Coliforms During Wastewater Percolation Through Equatorial Soil in Central Africa: The Role of the Soil Column Near Soil Surface and that Closely Above Groundwater Table

Groundwater protection from pollutants depends mostly on retention potentials of soil above groundwater table. Soil separating soil surface from groundwater table is made up of several layers and can be divided into different columns along its vertical transect. Wastewater percolation tests were carried out through one soil column CA, in contact with soil surface and through another CB, closely above groundwater table. The aim of the study was to assess the importance of soil columns CA and CB, in total coliforms and staphylococci retention during wastewater infiltration or groundwater recharge, in equatorial soils in Central African region. The results showed that, the fraction of total coliforms retained through soil column CA varied with respect to wastewater loads applied on top of soil column, from 69.22% to 99.95%, relative to the total coliforms concentration deposited on top. The fraction of total coliforms retained through CB varied with respect to wastewater loads applied, from 96.98 to 99.89% relative to the total coliforms deposited on top. Through both soil columns, fractions of staphylococci retained was in the order of 99.99% relative to the total staphylococci concentration deposited on top. For the whole bacteriological analysis, the fractions of total coliforms retained seems to be greater through deeper soil column than that of upper soil column. The bacterial contaminants retained relative to their concentrations in wastewater poured on soil column surfaces, varied from 6.17 log units to 9.73 log units. An applied load of 100 ml seemed to lead to the bacterial pollutants transported through both soil columns studied. NH₄ ⁺ was retained by fractions varying from 97.37 to 98.74%. Concentrations of various contaminants found in groundwater would be a tiny part, relative to quantities deposited on soil surface. Bacterial retention potentials of soil column separating soil surface from groundwater table during wastewater percolation, varies along its transect. It would be due to numerous and variable physical, chemical and structural properties of soil layers and bacteria on the one hand, and to results of various interactions between soil layer particles and cell bacteria, on the other hand.     

The influence of temperature and water table position on carbon dioxide and methane emissions from laboratory columns of peatland soils

Laboratory columns (80 cm long, 10 cm diameter) of peat were constructed from samples collected from a subarctic fen, a temperate bog and a temperate swamp. Temperature and water table position were manipulated to establish their influence on emissions of CO₂ and CH₄ from the columns. A factorial design experiment revealed significant (P < 0.05) differences in emission of these gases related to peat type, temperature and water table position, as well as an interaction between temperature and water table. Emissions of CO₂ and CH₄ at 23°C were an average of 2.4 and 6.6 times larger, respectively, than those at 10°C. Compared to emissions when the columns were saturated, water table at a depth of 40 cm increased CO₂ fluxes by an average of 4.3 times and decreased CH₄ emissions by an average of 5.0 times. There were significant temporal variations in gas emissions during the 6-week experiment, presumably related to variations in microbial populations and substrate availability. Using columns with static water table depths of 0, 10, 20, 40 and 60 cm, CO₂ emissions showed a positive, linear relation with depth, whereas CH₄ emissions revealed a negative, logarithmic relation with depth. Lowering and then raising the water table from the peat surface to a depth of 50 cm revealed weak evidence of hysteresis in CO₂ emissions between the falling and rising water table limbs. Hysteresis (falling > rising limb) was very pronounced for CH₄ emissions, attributed to a release of CH₄ stored in porewater and a lag in the development of anaerobic conditions and methanogenesis on the rising limb. Decreases in atmospheric pressure were correlated with abnormally large emissions of CO₂ and CH₄ on the falling limb. Peat slurries incubated in flasks revealed few differences between the three peat types in the rates of CO₂ production under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. There were, however, major differences between peat types in the rates of CH₄ consumption under aerobic incubation conditions and CH₄ production under anaerobic conditions (bog > fen > swamp), which explain the differences in response of the peat types in the column experiment.     

Treatment Efiiciencies of Constructed Wetlands for Eutrophic Landscape River Water

The efficiencies of two types of constructed wetlands for the treatment of low-concentration polluted eutrophic landscape river water were studied in the western section of the Qingyuan River at the Minhang campus of Shanghai Jiaotong University. The first wetland was a single-stage system using gravel as a filtration medium, and the second was a three- stage system filled with combinations of gravel, zeolite, and fly ash. Results from parallel operations of the wetlands showed that the three-stage constructed wetland could remove organics, nitrogen, and phosphorus successfully. At the same time, it could also decrease ammoniacal odour in the effluent. Compared to the single-stage constructed wetland, it had better nutrient removal efficiencies with a higher removal of 19.37%-65.27% for total phosphorus （TP） and 21.56%- 62.94% for total nitrogen （TN）, respectively, during the operation period of 14 weeks. In terms of removal of chemical oxygen demand （COD）, turbidity, and blue-green algae, these two wetland systems had equivalent performances. It was also found that in the western section of the test river, in which the two constructed wetlands were located, the water quality was much better than that in the eastern and middle sections without constructed wetland because COD, TN, and TP were all in a relatively lower level and the eutrophication could be prevented completely in the western section.     

不同补水方式下砂壤土渗滤系统对硝态氮去除效果

在水资源短缺的北京地区利用再生水回补城市河湖,一方面对于水资源的可持续利用有着十分重要的作用,另一方面也可能带来地下水环境的潜在污染风险.该文采用100 cm砂壤土柱模拟(河湖岸底)土地渗滤系统,设置定水头淹水、交替淹水落干、定流速补水和侧向补水4种不同再生水回补方式,研究再生水中硝态氮(NO3-N)在土地渗滤系统中的去除效果和迁移转化规律.结果表明,当水力负荷在0.25~2.65 cm/d范围内时,渗滤系统对NO3-N的去除率随着水力负荷的增大而减小;侧向补水方式下渗滤系统对NO3-N的去除效果最优,平均去除率高达96.1%.在定水头淹水和侧向补水方式下,系统对NO3-N的去除主要发生在土柱的上部,而交替淹水落干和定流速补水条件下,土柱中下部对NO3-N也有一定的去除作用.渗滤系统对NO3-N的去除主要取决于系统内部微生物的分布情况,土层中的反硝化细菌数量越大,该土层对NO3-N的去除率就越高.当水温在15~32℃范围内变化时,定水头淹水和交替淹水落干补水方式下,系统对NO3-N的去除率与温度分别呈指数和幂函数关系.该研究表明土地渗滤系统可实现再生水的进一步净化处理,可为再生水安全回补河湖提供参考.     

两种人工湿地处理富营养化景观水体的性能对比研究

The efficiencies of two types of constructed wetlands for the treatment of low-concentration polluted eutrophic land-scape river water were studied in the western section of the Qingyuan River at the Minhang campus of Shanghai Jiaotong University. The first wetland was a single-stage system using gravel as a filtration medium, and the second was a three-stage system filled with combinations of gravel, zeolite, and fly ash. Results from parallel operations of the wetlands showed that the three-stage constructed wetland could remove organics, nitrogen, and phosphorus successfully. At the same time, it could also decrease ammoniacal odour in the effluent. Compared to the single-stage constructed wetland, it had better nutrient removal efficiencies with a higher removal of 19.37%-65.27% for total phosphorus (TP) and 21.56%-62.94% for total nitrogen (TN), respectively, during the operation period of 14 weeks. In terms of removal of chemical oxygen demand (COD), turbidity, and blue-green algae, these two wetland systems had equivalent performances. It was also found that in the western section of the test river, in which the two constructed wetlands were located, the water quality was much better than that in the eastern and middle sections without constructed wetland because COD, TN, and TP were all in a relatively lower level and the eutrophication could be prevented completely in the western section.     

夹砂层土体构型毛管水上升的实验研究

针对西北地区土壤剖面多呈层状和春季强烈返盐季节土壤多处于裸露状态的特点，通过室内土柱实验，研究了有地下水位条件下夹砂层剖面的土壤蒸发问题。结果表明，砂层会影响毛管水上升的高度和速度，毛管水到达土表的时间随砂层厚度的增加、层位的升高以及级配的变差而延长，但砂层级配对于水分的阻滞作用最大。砂层影响各层土壤含水量的分布，在水分达到平衡状态时，砂层以下土壤含水量大于均质土，而砂层以上土壤含水量则小于或近似于均质土。砂层能明显降低地下水的蒸发量，但夹砂层土柱的蒸发量随砂层厚度的增加而降低，而表砂层土柱的蒸发量则随砂层厚度的增加而增强。在蒸发阶段，砂层层位的作用表现更为显著。     

Influence of Particle Association and Suspended Solids on UV Inactivation of Fecal Indicator Bacteria in an Urban River

Different cases of bioremediation technique were experimentally investigated here for decontaminating light non-aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL)-polluted groundwater collected from Panipat oil refinery situated in Haryana, India. Natural biodegradation of toluene, the selected LNAPL, was studied first under different varying substrate concentrations at room temperature (21.6?±?0.3 °C). Biostimulation was then studied by mixing the polluted groundwater with a primary treated domestic wastewater for providing nutrients and other supplementary components to the native microbial population. For studying the remaining cases, small-scale wetland having plants of Canna generalis was developed in the laboratory with and without the presence of toluene in the rhizosphere. The wetland system in the presence of toluene was used here for developing the pre-grown microbial cultures to enhance the degradation rate of the LNAPL (bioaugmentation). The plant-assisted biostimulation was studied in the third case by adding the polluted groundwater with the root zone water of the wetland system developed without the presence of toluene. In the fourth case, the biostimulation was coupled with the bioaugmentation strategy by mixing the groundwater with the root zone water of the wetland system developed in the presence of toluene. A comparative account of these four different bioremediation techniques was prepared for their respective rates of biodegradation, duration of lag phases, and the total time of degradation. It was observed that the plant-assisted bioremediation techniques had better performance over the natural biodegradation and biostimulation methods of the considered LNAPL. The plant-assisted biostimulation coupled with the bioaugmentation technique needed almost no acclimatization time and accelerated the rate of degradation almost twofold compared to the natural bioremediation and, hence, is proved to be the best one among the other bioremediation techniques for decontaminating the LNAPL-polluted groundwater. The results of the conducted experiments can be used to obtain vital information on framing the engineered bioremediation planning for LNAPL-contaminated sites.     

种植作物条件下非饱和土壤中水盐的动态实验和数值模拟研究

A laboratory salt-water dynamics experiment using unsaturated soils in packed silt loam and clay soil columns with different soil texture profiles and groundwater levels under crops were conducted to study the changes of salt-water dynamics induced by water uptake of crops and to propose the theoretical basis for the regulation and control of salt-water dynamics as well as to predict salinity levels. The HYDRUS 1D model was applied to simulate the one-dimensional movement of water and salt transport in the soil columns. The results showed that the salts mainly accumulated in the plow layer in the soil columns under crops. Soil water and salt both moved towards the plow layer due to soil water absorption by the crop root system. The salt contents in the column with lower groundwater were mostly greater than those with high groundwater. The water contents in the soil columns increased from top to the bottom due to plant root water uptake. The changes in groundwater level had little influence on water content of the root zone in the soil columns with crop planting. Comparison between the simulated and the determined values showed that model simulation results were ideal, so it is practicable to do numerical simulation of soil salt and water transport by the HYDRUS 1D model. Furthermore, if the actual movement of salt and water in fields is to be described in detail, much work needs to be done. The most important thing is to refine the parameters and select precise boundary conditions.     

秋茄人工湿地净化循环海水养殖废水效果

为了深入研究采用人工湿地方法处理循环海水养殖废水的可行性及其运行特性,以红树林植物秋茄(Kandelia candel)为湿地植物构建耐盐人工湿地,对循环海水养殖废水进行生物处理。该文对比研究了秋茄人工湿地与无植物人工湿地的处理效果,在系统启动17d后的稳定运行阶段,秋茄人工湿地对化学需氧量(chemical oxygen demand,COD)和氨氮(NH4+-N)的去除率分别在66.4%～73.8%和64.3%～72.4%,明显高于无植物人工湿地对COD56.7%～62.4%的去除率和对NH4+-N51.2%～57.5%的去除率;在总磷(total phosphorus,TP)去除方面,秋茄人工湿地和无植物人工湿地的去除率分别为55.7%～61.7%和54.3%～60.4%,两者并无明显差别。对人工湿地基质酶活性的分析发现,秋茄人工湿地的基质脲酶活性和磷酸酶活性均明显高于无植物人工湿地;同时在秋茄人工湿地基质床中,根系分布最多的表层0～5cm区域基质酶活性明显高于其他区域,表明秋茄的根部对于提高人工湿地基质床的生物活性及其去污能力发挥了显著的作用。对秋茄人工湿地水力条件的研究表明,表面水力负荷对系统去除有机物和氮有较明显的影响,表面水力负荷控制在0.1m3/(m2·d)及以下时,出水水质可达到国家渔业水质标准的要求。该文研究结果为循环海水养殖废水提供了一种生物处理途径。     

洛克沙胂在土壤柱中的淋溶迁移

畜禽粪便中残留的兽药进入土壤后的移动性是评价其淋溶能力（对地下水的污染风险）的重要信息。通过土壤柱稳定流实验,考察了不同淋溶剂、粪浸液等对洛克沙胂在不同深度（0～20、20～50、50～80 cm）灰潮土中的迁移行为影响。结果表明,水、0.01mol.L^-1 CaCl2、0.01 mol.L^-1 EDTA-Na2淋溶剂,对不同深度土壤柱中洛克沙胂的淋溶穿透曲线（BTCs）呈现不同程度的不对称性,在不同深度土壤柱中对洛克沙胂的淋出率分别为：水为92.3%～97.1%,0.01 mol.L^-1 CaCl2为71.0%～84.9%,0.01 mol.L^-1 EDTA-Na2为75.4%～91.2%;土壤柱先用粪浸液通过后,洛克沙胂的穿透曲线峰时间均有不同程度的提前,淋出率均有增加,在不同深度土壤柱中的淋出率分别为：水为96.4%～110.4%,0.01 mol.L^-1 CaCl2为94.5%～106.8%,0.01 mol.L^-1 EDTA-Na2为90.8%～103.2%。说明洛克沙胂随粪便进入土壤后可较快地淋溶迁移,可进入地表水和地下水中,对水环境质量的影响较大。     

Soil hydrology and CO2 release of peat soils

A simple model to predict soil water components and the CO₂ release for peat soils is presented. It can be used to determine plant water uptake and the CO₂ release as a result of peat mineralization for different types of peat soils, various climate conditions, and groundwater levels. The model considers the thickness of the root zone, its hydraulic characteristics (pF, Ku), the groundwater depth and a soil‐specific function to predict the CO₂ release as a result of peat mineralization. The latter is a mathematical function considering soil temperature and soil matric potential. It is based on measurements from soil cores at varying temperatures and soil water contents using a respiricond equipment. Data was analyzed using nonlinear multiple regression analysis. As a result, CO₂ release equations were gained and incorporated into a soil water simulation model. Groundwater lysimeter measurements were used for model calibration of soil water components, CO₂ release was adapted according long‐term lysimeter data of Mundel (1976). Peat soils have a negative water balance for groundwater depth conditions up to 80—100 cm below surface. Results demonstrate the necessity of a high soil water content i.e. shallow groundwater to avoid peat mineralization and soil degradation. CO₂ losses increase with the thickness of the rooted soil zone and decreases with the degree of soil degradation. Especially the combination of deep groundwater level and high water balance deficits during the vegetation period leads to tremendous CO₂ losses.     

Wetland Simulation Model for Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sediments Retention in Constructed Wetlands

Steamboat Creek, Washoe County, Nevada, is considered the most polluted tributary of the Truckee River, therefore the reduction of nutrients from the creek is an important factor in reducing eutrophication in the lower Truckee River. Restoration of the wetlands along the creek has been proposed as one method to improve water quality by reducing nutrient and sediments from non-point sources. This study was aimed to design a simulation model wetlands water quality model (WWQM) that evaluates nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediments retention from a constructed wetland system. WWQM is divided into four submodels: hydrological, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment. WWQM is virtual Visual Basic 6.0 program that calculates hydrologic parameters, nutrients, and sediments based on available data, simple assumptions, knowledge of the wetland system, and literature data. WWQM calibration and performance was evaluated using data sets obtained from the pilot-scale constructed wetland over a period of four and half years. The pilot-scale wetland was constructed to quantify the ability of the proposed wetland system for nutrient and sediment removal. WWQM simulates nutrient and sediments retention reasonably well and agrees with the observed values from the pilot-scale wetland system. The model predicts that wetlands along the creek will remove nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediments by 62, 38, and 84 %, respectively, which would help to reduce eutrophication in the lower Truckee River.     

Water-table management in lowland UK peat soils and its potential impact on CO2 emission

The rate of oxidation of peat soils is highly seasonal and varies with temperature and soil moisture content. Large variations in soil moisture content result in wet–dry cycles that can enhance peat degradation. Water‐table management plays a crucial role in controlling and damping the effect of these environmental factors. However, maintaining high ditch water levels in fields bounded by ditches does not guarantee a high field groundwater level. The effect of installing subsurface irrigation at different spacings on water table elevation was studied in a low‐lying peat grassland. The water table elevation data were compared against values predicted with a water balance model. In addition, greenhouse experiments were carried out on undisturbed soil core samples collected from the peat grassland as well as a low‐lying peatland under intensive arable faming to measure CO₂ evolution under different water regimes. The field data from the peat grassland suggest that sub‐irrigation spacing as low as 10 m is necessary during summer periods to maintain groundwater levels similar to those in the ditches. Over the same period of observation, the difference in water level between the ditches and the non‐irrigated fields is as high as 0.7 m. Modelled outputs are in good correlation with the field observations, and demonstrate that simple water balance models can provide an effective tool to study the effect of water management practices and potential changes in subsurface conditions, climate and land use on water‐table levels. The measurement of CO₂ emission from undisturbed peat soil columns shows that the rate of oxidation of soil organic matter from peat soils is highly seasonal and that drainage exacerbates the rate of peat mineralization.     

地下水作用条件下粉砂壤土盐分动态研究

用粉砂壤土土柱进行了室内模拟试验，研究不同地下水埋深及其矿化度作用条件下非饱和粉砂壤土的盐分动态规律。在相同地下水埋深情况下，处于盐分动态平衡状态时的各模拟土柱相同层次土壤溶液浓度，与地下水矿化度呈良好正相关关系。在相同地下水矿化度条件下，土体积盐速率与地下水埋深呈负相关关系，但是各土柱相同埋深土体达到盐分动态平衡状态时的土壤溶液浓度差别不明显。对地下水埋深及地下水矿化度对耕作层土壤溶液浓度的综合作用效果进行了深入分析，建立了各积盐阶段耕作层土壤溶液浓度的增高值关于此二因素的数理统计模型。     

地下水作用下微咸水灌溉对土壤及作物的影响

随着微咸水灌溉面积逐年增加,不合理的灌溉对土壤环境造成了不同程度的污染。该文采用大型蒸渗仪研究不同地下水埋深条件下微咸水灌溉夏玉米对土壤-作物系统环境因子的影响。研究结果表明：在地下水水位低于3 m地区进行微咸水灌溉,0～100 cm的土层内不会形成严重的积盐现象。当灌水水质为4 g/L时,灌水水质对土壤盐分环境的影响大于地下水埋深对其的影响。地下水埋深越深,夏玉米叶面积指数、株高及产量越小,且随灌溉水盐分水平的增加而减小,地下水埋深对夏玉米形态指标的影响大于盐分水平对其的影响。     

自然-社会水循环模型估算平原-丘陵-湿地区水稻种植潜力

自20世纪中叶以来在平原-丘陵-湿地区随着井灌水稻热的兴起,水稻种植面积急剧扩大甚至超过此类地区水稻种植潜力,引起了湿地面积萎缩、地下水水位下降和水质恶化等问题。为解决这些问题,该文构建自然-社会二元水循环模型揭示人类影响下的平原-丘陵-湿地区水循环机理,进而推算适宜的水稻种植面积。首先,利用数值法构建了基于栅格的分布式水文模型,然后在此模型中嵌入人类活动影响模型从而构建了二元水循环模型。根据水稻种植潜力阈值抽取河道水量极值、地下水最大埋深、地下水最大降深和最大地下水开采量等因素与旱田作物种类组合了18种情景模式。在满足控制阈值条件下,依据多年平均日降雨、蒸发和情景模式利用二元模型计算了各种情景的水田种植潜力,由潜力分析得:18种模式地下水最大埋深在5.17～7.49 m之间,地下水最大降深在1.67～3.73 m之间;水田处最大坡度范围0.028～0.053;河道引水量占河道水量的50%～70%;地下水开采比例在79%～112%间;水稻种植潜力为28.36万hm~2～54.12万hm~2,来自旱地面积为21.05万hm~2～40.32万hm~2,来自未利用地面积为5.68万hm~2～11.09万hm~2。以情景模式17为例在水田生育期内对河道生态需水量、地下水水位和旱地作物蒸发等进行了检验,验证得到:整个水稻生育期内分区流域地下水埋深均小于7.12m,开发水田的分区流域基流比最小值为33.45%,分区流域旱田平均蒸发与1990年土地类型情景下的分区流域旱田平均蒸发的比值大部分位于0.98～1.05,说明水稻生育期内情景17对河道水量和地下水水位的影响在控制范围内,对旱田蒸发影响比较小,因此情景模式17的水稻种植潜力是可行的。研究可为描述平原-丘陵-湿地区的水文循环过程和推求水田开发潜力提供依据。     

Changes in the pore space of soil constructions in physical laboratory models

The dynamics of pore space structure in different filled soil constructions during water infiltration and wetting–drying processes is studied. Model laboratory experiments in columns physically simulate water infiltration after penetration at a rate of 600 mm with free outflow from the lower end of the column followed by multiple drying of soil constructions composed by alternating layers of sand, peat, and A and В horizons of soddy-podzolic soil. In two- and three-dimensional tomographic images, changes in the pore space and the interpenetration of solid phase at the boundaries between individual horizons of soil constructions are analyzed.     

Nitrogen and phosphorus removal by cypress swamp sediments

Removal of nutrients from wastewater (effluent) by sediments in cypress swamps was studied in laboratory leaching columns filled with wet surface sediments. Columns were leached with low-nutrient groundwater, treated wastewater, and treated wastewater amended with nitrate (20 to 30 mg N L^?1) and phosphate (9.5 mg P L^?1) for 21 mo. From 99 to 100% of the nitrate-nitrite and P was removed from the amended wastewater eluants throughout the investigation; average concentrations of nitrate-nitrite and P in effluent from amended wastewater columns did not exceed concentrations in leachate from columns eluted with groundwater. Ammonium removal was approximately 50% in columns receiving treated wastewater. Sediments of cypress swamps have a large capacity to remove nutrients from secondary effluent.