Changes in suspended-matter floc size during the tidal cycle in the dollard estuary

Measurements of in situ particle size of suspended matter in a tidal channel in the Dollard (Dutch Wadden Sea) indicated systematic variations in floc size during the tidal cycle that can be explained by assuming settling during slack tide, resuspension during the early ebb and early flood, flocculation of fine particles into large ones during most of the tide, and deflocculation of large flocs into smaller particles during or after settling to the bottom. There was a characteristic difference in floc-size variation during ebb and during flood. During the ebb maximum floc size coincided with maximum suspended-matter concentration (maximum collision frequency); during the flood maximum floc size continued to increase towards high-water slack tide. The adjacent tidal flats had a marked influence on floc size: where the flats were small, the highest percentages of large flocs (>F128 μm) occurred around slack tide when current velocities are low. Where the adjacent flats were broad and extensive, high percentages also occured during intermediate periods. Flocs of maximum size are probably not in equilibrium with the bulk of the suspended matter: they are mainly formed during periods of high suspended-matter concentrations of short duration.     

The determination of the sizes and settling velocities of estuarine flocs by an underwater video system

The in situ underwater video system VIS is described. VIS determines sizes and settling velocities of suspended mud flocs without destroying the large fragile aggregates. The settling process of the flocs and aggregates can be observed directly on a screen on board the research vessel. Analysis of the videorecordings was possible up to 600 mg·dm⁻³, which is of importance in turbid estuarine systems. Experiments with VIS in the Ems estuary showed macroflocs with settling velocities of 0.5 to 2.0 mm·s⁻¹ and sizes of 200 to 500 μm. These flocs were observed at relatively low suspended-sediment concentrations (20 to 50 mg·dm⁻³). During certain phases of the tidal cycle (around mid-tide) even larger aggregates were observed with dimensions in the range of 400 to 1100 μm and settling velocities of 1 to 7 mm·s⁻¹, surviving relatively high current velocities. The large aggregates are shown to play an essential role in the phenomenon of rapid settling, as observed in various estuaries.     

Fractal geometry of in situ flocs in the estuarine and coastal environments

One- and two-dimensional fractal dimensions of in situ flocs were determined from the dependence of the are and perimeter of projection of the flocs on their greatest length, using an underwater camera and image-analysis system. Values for the fractal dimensions of flocs in the Elbe estuary and the North Sea varied among the samples: D₁ in the range of 1.03 to 1.14 and D₂ in the range of 1.41 to 1.81. D₂ as obtained here represents the three-dimensional fractal dimension of flocs, which has been obtained in previous studies from the dependence of settling velocity or porosity of flocs on their characteristic length. Comparisons of environmental factors showed no relationships between the fractal dimension and fluid shear. Salinity effects on the fractal dimension were probably also insignificant in our samples. The relationship of D₁ with the concentration of suspended matter was fairly convincing and suggests that the flocs had a rougher edge of projection at high than at low concentrations.     

臭氧对循环水系统中悬浮颗粒物净化效果及机理研究

为了研究臭氧对循环水养殖系统中悬浮颗粒物的净化效果,探讨臭氧对悬浮颗粒物的影响机理,在养殖水体投加不同量的臭氧进行实验室小规模模拟实验,对水体的TSS、浊度等指标进行检测,并对悬浮颗粒物进行粒度分析。结果表明投加臭氧有助于降低水体浊度,投加7.53mg/L臭氧可将浊度为(5.22±0.55)NTU的原水降低浊度12.47%,投加15.05mg/L和22.58mg/L 臭氧则可提高到25.31%和30.20%。投加臭氧将影响悬浮颗粒物的物理特性,在投加22.58mg/L臭氧时对颗粒物助凝效果显著,将悬浮颗粒物粒径大多分布在48-68um范围的原水转变成99.22%数量的颗粒物粒径>64um,有利于后续物理过滤处理。本研究明确了臭氧对悬浮颗粒物的净化效果是通过氧化有机物产生络合沉淀和胶体絮凝物等改变颗粒物的粒径大小分布的途径来实际的,为臭氧在循环水养殖系统中的应用提供理论支撑。     

Microbial growth in turbulent suspension and its relation to marine aggregate formation

Microbial growth and respiration responses to seston of differing organic composition revealed two different mechanisms of marine aggregate formation: an almost immediate physicochemical aggregation of fine (<8 μm) particles and a longer-term (48 hrs) production of large, robust aggregates, mediated by bacterial activity. Suspensions of fine Spartina alterniflora fragments and a glacial till from Nova Scotia were used to stimulate bacterial and protozoan growth while maintained in turbulent suspension. Under high (6 to 11 mg·dm⁻³) DOC concentrations bacterial responses were rapid and, after 48 hrs, resulted in large, robust flocculated aggregates. With only the till in suspension, DOC levels were low (<3 mg·dm⁻³) yet the bacterial reponse was still rapid. Initial flocculation due to physical factors was evident in the till-only experiment and was either masked or not important in the high DOC experiments. Bacterial respiration per cell was 2 to 3 times as high under low DOC conditions as under high DOC and initial bacterial attachment to particle surfaces was significantly higher. Significant aggregate formation occurred after 48 hrs and appeared to be due to relict exudates from attached bacteria, in spite of low numbers of attached bacteria at the time of flocculation.     

The distribution of suspended matter in the Dutch coastal zone

Results are presented of suspended matter observations taken at bi-weekly intervals during the period 1975–1983, in a strip 70 km wide along the Dutch coast. The average distribution showed a (weak) minimum zone located north of Noordwijk at a distance of about 30 km from and parallel to the Dutch coast, between the salinity maximum and the coast. Variability was large between different years, seasons and individual cruises. A clear seasonal cycle emerged from the observed suspended-matter patterns: in winter a pronounced minimum existed, while in summer generally a monotonically decreasing concentration was measured, to open-sea values much lower than in winter. This seasonal cycle may be explained by a combination of variation in wind, river discharge and the activity of suspended-matter sources. The Flemish Banks and Channel waters are the main sources supplying suspended matter to the Dutch coastal area. Especially the varying transport through the Strait of Dover, large in winter, small in summer, determines the seasonal variation in the total amount of suspended matter. The existence of a localized turbidity minimum is tied to relatively large discharges from the Rhine and associated steep salinity gradients, also occurring mainly in winter and early spring. A simple model of cross-shore density-driven circulation shows the possible influence of the strong salinity gradients on the sedimentation of suspended matter. Particles with a settling rate comparable to the vertical velocity component of the circulation are forced to move offshore until they reach an area they sink out of the surface layer. The strength of this circulation is determined by the cross-shore density gradient due to the inflow of fresh water from the Rhine-Meuse estuary.     

Distribution,organic content and particle size of suspended matter in the north sea

Data on suspended matter concentrations and the organic content of the suspended matter for January 1980 showed a division in the North Sea between the southern North Sea (high suspended matter concentrations, but relatively low organic content) and the central and northern North Sea (low suspended matter concentrations, but relatively high organic content). The Skagerrak, which receives suspended matter from the southern as well as from the central and northern North Sea, took up an intermediate position.In summer suspended matter concentrations were lower than in winter but more variable, in concentration as well as in organic content, because of admixtures of particulate matter from primary production. On deposition of the suspended matter, a considerable part of the organic matter was apparently lost (in the order of 75% or more), resulting in low organic-matter concentrations of fine-grained bottom deposits.Particle-size distributions followed two main types: one (A) with a sharp peak at 30 to 100 μm, and one (B) bell-shaped with a peak at 5 to 15 μm. Type A occurred in deeper water and consisted of particles with a high organic-matter content, type B occurred in shallow areas and consisted of particles with a low organic-matter content. The suspended particles were mainly microflocs of mineral particles and organic matter. The mineral particles of both types were predominantly of 2 to 5 μm size, which was determined after oxidation of the organic matter. It is concluded that particles of type-B distributions are regularly exchanged with the bottom through deposition and resuspension, which results in low organic-matter contents and prevents the microflocs reaching large sizes. Paricles of type-A distributions, on the contrary, can reach much larger sizes, because mostly they remain in suspension and do not lose organic matter, so that they do not easily fall apart.     

Minor and major elements in suspended matter in the Rhine and Meuse rivers and estuary

Suspended sediment in the Rhine-Meuse estuary contained as little as one third of the trace metal content of the river-borne suspended matter. It is shown that the strong seawardly decreasing gradient in the trace metal content of the suspended particulate matter is not due to desorption processes, but can be explained simply by the mixing of river-borne and marine-derived suspended sediments.     

Temperature beat on a tidal flat: Potential cue for harpacticoid bloom

Temperature was recorded in the sediment on a tidal flat in the Fraser estuary (Canada) from February 15 to July 1985, and from February 19 to July 9 in 1986, with continuous recording thermographs. Within these periods, the abundance of an assemblage of harpacticoid copepods (Tisbe spp., Zaus aurelii, Harpacticus uniremis) was monitored bi-weekly by sampling the water column with a sled-sampler. Temperature time-series of both years showed the expected fortnightly beats in the daily temperature cycle. A reversal in the direction of the change of temperature in the sediment during exposure was observed on March 12 in 1985, and on March 1 in 1986. This reversal initiated the seasonal warming beat in the sediment when exposed at lower low waters, and is caused by the precessing of the timing of the lower low waters relative to the solar day. Blooming period of harpacticoids was centred on March 21 in 1985, and on March 12 in 1986. Closeness and apparent co-phasing of warming beat initiation and bloom onset suggest that the reversal in the direction of temperature change at lower low waters exposure could be a cue for harpacticoid blooming. The predictability of the timing of this clear signal in the thermal regime could provide the basis for an unequivocal definition of the link between harpacticoid abundance and temperature on tidal flats.     

Immigration and settlement pattern of Paralichthys dentatus and P. lethostigma in an estuarine nursery ground,North Carolina,U.S.A.

Immigration and settlement pattern of 0-group summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) and southern flounder (P. lethostigma) in an estuarine nursery are described. Flounders entering the estuary were transforming larvae. Despite their sympatric occurrence during larval immigration, the two species were found concentrated in different habitats. Sampling along transects within the estuary indicated that newly settled southern flounder were concentrated on tidal flats towards the head of the estuary while greatest numbers of summer flounder were captured on tidal flats in the middle reach of the system. Logistic regression analysis of presence/absence data indicated that salinity affected the distribution of southern flounder while substrate type was an important factor affecting the distribution of summer flounder. Numbers of both species on tidal flats declined in the spring, southern flounder appeared to move upstream to oligohaline riverine habitat and summer flounder appeared to move to high salinity salt marsh habitat. The segregated distribution apparent in juveniles is largely established during the immigration period. Differences in settling behaviour and subsequent movement and/or differential mortality occurring during settlement, appear important in determining the observed distribution of juvenile summer and southern flounder.     

Distribution and abundance of the zooplankton of the Ems estuary (North Sea)

From 1974 to 1977 a study was made of the abundance and the distribution of the zooplankton species of the Ems estuary (The Netherlands and the Federal Republic of Germany), an area of about 500 km² with extensive tidal flats.The most important component of the zooplankton consisted of holoplanktonic calanoid copepods with, during the summer, a significant contribution of meroplankton, mainly consisting of polychaete and cirripede larvae. Zooplankton abundance showed a marked seasonality, with a pronounced spring peak and a smaller late summer/autumn peak. In the low salinity area the spring bloom was dominated by Eurytemora affinis, which persisted in the salinities below S=5 upriver during the whole year. In the polyhaline area Acartia bifilosa was the main component of the spring bloom. The late summer maximum from August to October was dominated by Acartia tonsa in the meso- and polyhaline area and by A. discaudata and Centropages hamatus in the euhaline part of the estuary bordering on the Wadden Sea proper. The number of abundant (> 1000 ind·m⁻³) species increased from the inner, fresher part of the estuary towards the Wadden Sea but, except for April, average zooplankton density in salinities <18 was similar (2768 ind·m⁻³) to the density in salinities >18 (2817 ind·m⁻³).The distribution patterns show that there are only a few autochthonous species and that the majority of species is allochthonous and penetrates more or less deeply into the estuary from the Wadden Sea and North Sea, varying with species and season.     

Biogenic sedimentary structures on a Korean mud flat: Spring-neap variations

Biogenic sedimentary structures created by dominant benthic animals of a mud flat were investigated in a small embayment at Panweol on the west coast of Korea. Burrows were replicated using the resin casting method on a sufficiently large scale to evaluate their variations statistically. The size and shape of burrows and other traces varied with locations and tidal phases. Burrows of the upper-intertidal crabs Helice tridens sheni and Ilyoplax dentimerosa were T- or I-shaped, vertical and deep whereas those of the mid-intertidal crab Macrophthalmus japonicus were U-shaped, oblique and shallow. The upper-intertidal polychaete Perineris aibuhitensis, a subsurface feeder, had sinuous and highly-branched burrows while the mid-internal one Periserrula leucophryna, a surface feeder, had vertical burrows without subsurface branches. Variations of crab burrows with tidal phases were distinct: The burrows of both H. tridens sheni and M. japonicus were significantly deeper and wider during neap tides than during spring tides. Sediment mounds were common in the upper intertidal zone, while crawling and feeding traces such as trails, trackways and cheliped scrapings were more prominent in the mid-intertidal zone. These traces were also observed in the upper intertidal zone during spring tides when surface sediments became watery. The size of the sediment mounds varied, being largest during neap tides. These biogenic sedimentary structures observed at Panweol were distinctly different from those found near Inchon only 50 km away, probably due to differences in hydrology and sedimentology.     

Investigations of the particle motion characteristics in the gas solid two phase wake of leeward side circular cylinder

This paper investigates the characteristics of the particle motion in circular cylinder wake flow of leeward side by simulating the micro particle flow around circular cylinder using Euler two fluid model combined with Reynolds stress model. It compares the particle velocity and concentration of different particle size in the leeward area. The results show that the vortex is formed after the gas flowed passing the cylinder, and the concentration and velocity of particles are affected by the turbulent intensity in the leeward side. Gas entrainment vortex and particles own inertia decide the flow form of fine particle around the cylinder. Both effects impact the particle concentration distribution of different size particles in the leeward area. With the increase of particle size, the particle concentration increases at the beginning and then decreases in the leeward area.     

Effect of wind on the vertical circulation and stratification in the Volkerak Estuary

In the partially mixed part of the Volkerak Estuary current speed and salt concentration are measured in several stations for periods of 13 hours on August 16 and 17, 1977. The freshwater discharge on those days and during the preceding six months is kept constant at a rate of 50 m³·s⁻¹. In spite of different wind conditions, the longitudunal distribution of the tidally- and cross-sectionally averaged salt concentration is the same for both days. The vertical structure of circulation and salt concentration differ significantly. A similar set of measurements is carried out on March 18, 1980 with a constant freshwater discharge of 100 m³·s⁻¹. The doubling of freshwater discharge leads to a relatively small increase in vertical circulation and stratification.In this study, the vertical circulation and stratification is examined in terms of the external forcings, freshwater discharge and wind, with special emphasis on wind. Tide conditions, for the three measurement days are similar. The estuary is schematized to a prismatic channel with a rectangular cross-section. In the schematized channel the tidally averaged salt concentration and velocity distribution are laterally uniform. To account for salt fluxes in the actual estuary associated with lateral and time-variations in current velocity and salt concentration, a diffusive salt flux is introduced. The effect of wind and longitudinal density gradients on the vertical circulation and stratification in the schematized channel is investigated using a simplified form of the two-dimensional conservation of momentum and salt equations. Using observed values along the axis of the estuary a scaling analysis shows that in the two-dimensional conservation of momentum equation the longitudinal pressure gradient and horizontal turbulent shear are the dominant terms, closely followed by the tidal stress. In the conservation of salt equation, the dominant terms are those associated with advective fluxes resulting from the horizontal and vertical tidal mean velocities, a horizontal flux associated with tidal variations in the longitudinal velocity and salt concentration and the vertical turbulent flux. Retaining only first order terms, the equations are solved using the similarity solution of Hansen and Rattray. Comparing calculated and observed vertical circulation and stratification it is shown that wind mixing significantly increases the vertical exchange of momentum, thereby reducing the density-driven vertical circulation (=gravitational circulation) and stratification. At the same time, through the wind surface stress, wind generates its own vertical circulation and, therefore, stratification. An expected increase in vertical exchange of mass with increasing wind speed and accompanying reduction in stratification could not be confirmed by the analysis. It is concluded that on the days of the measurements wind is as important as the longitudinal salt concentration gradient in forcing vertical circulation and stratification. Care should be taken in generalizing this conclusion as on the days of the measurements the axial component of the wind velocity is always in the down estuary direction.     

Three-dimensional current structure in the Dutch coastal zone

As part of a more comprehensive programme on the hydrography in the Netherlands coastal zone its complex current structure is investigated. One of the aims is to identify the various dominant factors that control the patterns of the coastal flow. To that end field observations covering a one year period were taken at strategic locations in the Dutch coastal area.One of the main results reported here concerns the long term (i.e. one year) average residual currents. Near the bottom these appear to have a significant onshore directed component, with values of the order 2.5 to 3.5 cm/s. In the upper layer typical average values are between 7 and 11 cm/s. The near surface residual flow is mostly in longshore direction with an onshore component increasing with distance from shore, due to the prevailing southwesterly winds (i.e. close to longshore) over the area.The observed large variability of the three-dimensional current structure on different time-scales is largely induced by variations in wind conditions. If strong winds are accompanied by a high river discharge, a distinct two layer system results with very high residual current speeds in the upper-layer, up to 40 cm/s. The observations also produce evidence for the outflow of Rhine river water to be at least partly responsible for the significant onshore component of residual currents near the bottom, as it determines the density structure in this area.Tidal current ellipses show a marked vertical structure both with respect to shape and sense of rotation. For the region considered the spatial distribution of these parameters clearly illustrates the large influence of bottom friction and coastal boundaries, in combination with earth's rotation. Furthermore the data show that variations due to the spring-neap tidal cycle are substantial.     

Tide-induced residual transport of coarse sediment; Application to the EMS estuary

For a tidal channel with water of homogeneous density, an approximate analytical expression is derived for the tidally averaged transport of coarse sediment in terms of the amplitudes and phases of the tidal-current constituents. Transport is in the form of bed load and the rate of transport is proportional to some power of the local current speed. It is assumed that the tidal current is dominated by the M₂ constituent. From the analytical expression it follows that the interactions of M₂ and M₀ (= Eulerian mean current) and of M₂ and any of its even overtides, M₄, M₈etc., constitute the major contribution to the tidally averaged sediment transport. A combination of the M₂ tidal current and a fundamental constituent in the diurnal, semidiurnal or subsequent period bands results in a tidally averaged transport that fluctuates with the corresponding beat frequency. Therefore, for the long-term mean bed-load transport only the contributions of M₂ and M₀ and of M₂ and its even overtides are of interest. Application to the main channel of the Ems estuary showed good agreement with transport pathways derived from the grain-size distribution pattern. The tidally averaged sediment transport is largely the result of the interaction of the M₂ and M₀ tidal current constituents.     

CFD-DEM Simulation to Study the Filtration Characteristic of the Fine Particle in the Filter Media

The gas-solid two-phase flow characteristics of fine particles in the filter media were simulated based on CFD-DEM (Discrete Element Method) in this study, and the particle group, particle size distribution, and the rebound effect between particles, particle and fiber were taken into account the calculations. Additionally, the movement characteristics of the particle group and the deposition form of the fine particles in the fibrous filtration were analyzed. The results indicate that it is convenient and feasible to simulate the filtration process of the filter media as well as the deposition process and form of the fine particle on the media surface using CFD-DEM, and the simulation results are consistent with the experimental observations in the literature. The surface filtration has larger contribution to the filtration process, and most of the particles are captured by the media surface. Meanwhile, parts of smaller particles that enter into the media are captured by the depth filtration. A larger number of particles are collected by the particle-particle capture mechanism. The filtration efficiencies of the filter media are varied with the particle systems, and for the model of the filter media in this study, the filtration efficiency of the multi-particle system is about 20% higher than that of the single-particle one.     

The effect of organic pollution on local distribution of Nereis diversicolor and Corophium volutator

Distribution patterns of Nereis diversicolor and Corophium volutator in the SE-Dollard, a 92 km² tidal flat area in the NE Netherlands are described. Body condition as well as the maximal size of juvenile worms correlated positively with elevation of the mudflat, probably caused by a better food supply on the higher mudflats. No spatial variation in size was found for C. volutator.N. diversicolor disappeared from ∼1 km² of the intertidal mudflats in the autumn of 1985 as a consequence of the seasonal waste discharges, whereas C. volutator disappeared from an area of ∼4 km². Though the discharges decreased by almost 50% from 1982 to 1985, N. diversicolor disappeared from about the same area in the 2 years.N. diversicolor is the main prey species of the avocet Recurvirostra avosetta, large flocks of which stay in the Dollard during autumn migration. Though the avocets lost ∼30% of their potential feeding area in the Dollard in the 1970s because of the high waste discharges, against only 5 to 10% in 1982 and thereafter (at significant lower discharges), the numbers of the avocets did not respond to the decrease of the discharges.     

Suspended-sediment transport in the Dollard estuary

For an analysis of suspended-sediment transport in the Dollard estuary, water samples were taken and current velocities and directions measured on the tidal flats and in the channels. Measurements carried out during fair-weather conditions in summer were compared with measurements carried out during a heavy gale in winter. During the onset of the flood, high suspended-sediment concentrations occurred as a result of resuspension of the top layer of the bottom sediment. Measurements carried out in the channels pointed to sediment transport from the estuary seaward, but inward transport over the flats during fair weather apparently compensates for the outflow during ebb and storms: the result is a net deposition in the order of 1 to 2 mm (up to 8 mm) per year, as previously observed in this area.