Soil salinity and its distribution determined by soil sampling and electromagnetic techniques

Abstract. Diagnosis of soil salinity and its spatial variability is required to establish control measures in irrigated agriculture. This article shows the usefulness of electromagnetic (EM) and soil sampling techniques to map salinity. We analysed the salinity of a 1‐ha plot of surface‐irrigated olive plantation in Aragon, NE Spain, by measuring the electrical conductivity of the saturation extract (EC_e) of soil samples taken at 22 points, and by reading the Geonics EM38 sensor at 141 points in the horizontal (EM_H) and vertical (EM_V) dipole positions. EM_H and EM_V values had asymmetrical bimodal distributions, with most readings in the non‐saline range and a sharp transition to relatively high readings. Most salinity profiles were uniform (i.e. EM_H=EM_V), except in areas with high salinity and concurrent shallow water tables, where the profiles were inverted as shown by EM_H > EM_V, and by EC_e being greater in shallow than in deeper layers. The regressions of EC_e on EM readings predicted EC_e with R² > 84% for the 0–100 to 0–150 cm soil depths. We then produced salinity contour maps from the 141 EC_e values estimated from the electromagnetic readings and the 22 measured values of EC_e. Owing to the high soil sampling density, the maps were similar (i.e. mean surface‐weighted EC_e values between 3.9 dS m^?1 and 4.2 dS m^?1), although the electromagnetically estimated EC_e improved the mapping of details. Whereas soil sampling is preferred for analysing the vertical distribution of soil salinity, the electromagnetic sensor is ideal for mapping the lateral variability of soil salinity.     

长江三角洲地区滩涂土壤盐分空间分布特征研究

盐碱地盐分空间分布精准识别及形成机理解析对盐碱地科学利用具有重要意义。针对传统点状采样监测方法工作量大、代表性差和检测费用高等问题,本研究采用电磁感应仪精准调查技术对上海崇明某滩涂农场进行土壤盐分空间分布评估,全面快速获得盐分空间分布信息,解析土壤盐分形成机理,进而分类分区分级指导农业生产和科学精准改良。结果表明：土壤表观电导率(EC_a)和土壤盐分含量呈显著线性正相关关系(R²>0.9,P<0.05),土壤表观电导率的变化可以用来表征土壤盐分含量的变化;通过克里金插值研究区内土壤盐分的空间变异分布状况发现,研究区土壤盐分空间分布不均匀,有近80%区域存在轻中度盐碱化问题;通过定点取样土壤盐碱剖面评价,发现研究区土壤盐分具有较强的表聚性和变异强度,且变异系数随土壤深度增加不断减小;将表观电导率解译出的土壤盐分和土壤pH、有机质含量及主要组成离子含量进行相关性分析,剖析出该区域盐渍化类型以硫酸盐型为主,海水浸渍侧渗和地下水返盐影响是该区域盐渍化形成的主要原因。本研究实现了对土壤盐碱化快速、大范围、科学且动态的监测,对于全面提升盐碱地农...     

基于电磁感应的典型干旱区土壤盐分空间异质性

为研究干旱区土壤盐分空间异质性,指导农业生产实践,运用大地电导率仪（EM38、EM31）对研究区域进行移动式磁感调查,获取表观电导率（ECa）。同时,通过27个校准点的采样和ECa测量,建立土壤盐分的电磁感应解译模型。干旱区土壤盐分质量分数与EM38、EM31水平模式读数（H38、H31）显示出良好的相关性（R=0.935）,可以利用ECa结合GIS和地统计学知识研究土壤盐分的空间分布。采用两种方法进行研究：一种是先利用解译模型获取磁感调查点的土壤盐分质量分数,然后进行地统计分析研究其空间分布;另一种是先利用地统计分析研究H38和H31的空间分布,然后利用解译模型通过栅格运算计算盐分质量分数,精度检验显示前者预测值与实测值之间的相关性更好（R2, 0.888＞0.873）;标准差较低（std. 0.414＜0.426）,具有更高的预测精度。研究结果表明,基于电磁感应研究干旱区土壤盐分空间异质性是切实可行的,这对于土壤盐渍化的快速诊断,指导农业生产和促进精准农业的发展具有重要的意义。     

Comparison of Geonics EM38 and Dualem 1S electromagnetic induction sensors for the measurement of salinity and other soil properties

The electromagnetic induction (EMI) Geonics EM38 (G‐EM38) and Dualem 1S (D‐1S) sensors are used frequently for assessment of soil salinity and other soil characteristics in irrigated agriculture. We compared these two sensors to determine whether they could be used interchangeably for the measurement of apparent soil electrical conductivity (ECa) in horizontal (ECa‐h) and vertical (ECa‐v) coil receiver modes. Readings were taken at 201 locations identified in three irrigation districts in both modes, and statistical comparisons were made on the raw data and from maps of a 2‐ha irrigated field made using 1680 horizontal mode readings. Both sensors gave the same ECa‐v readings (mean G‐EM38 and D‐1S difference = 0), whereas the ECa‐h readings were slightly greater with the Geonics EM38 than with the Dualem D‐1S (mean difference = 0.075 and 0.05 dS/m for the 201 and 1680 observations, respectively). The degree of coincidence between both sensors for soil profile ECa classification was acceptable: 82% for normal profiles (i.e. ECa‐h/ECa‐v < 0.9) and 90% for inverted profiles (i.e. ECa‐h/ECa‐v > 1.1). In practical terms, Geonics EM38 and Dualem 1S sensors could be used interchangeably with similar or very close results.     

Comparison of spatial interpolation techniques for mapping soil pH and salinity in agricultural coastal areas,northern Iran

This study attempted to characterize the spatial distributions of soil pH and electrical conductivity (EC_e) of coastal fields in the Miyandoroud region, northern Iran, for three soil layer depths by assessing spatial variability and comparing different interpolation techniques such as inverse distance weighting (IDW), ordinary kriging (OK), and conditional simulations (CS). Three soil composite samples were collected from 0–50, 50–100, and 100–150 cm depths at 105 sampling sites. At all three soil depths, pH and EC_e were best fitted by exponential and spherical models, respectively. Nugget effects were higher for soil EC_e data sets compared with soil pH at all three soil depths showing soil EC_e had a spatial variability in small distances. The prediction accuracy of the interpolation methods indicated that the minimum error for all data sets was achieved with the OK method, except for pH at 50–100 cm depth, and the CS technique revealed the largest error. The effect of different numbers of simulations (100, 500 and 1000) in the CS interpolation method resulted not in a realistic mapping for the soil EC_e and pH. Considering the high importance of irrigated agriculture in the Caspian Sea coastal areas, more subsoil salinity build-up and groundwater salinity monitoring plans are needed as a prerequisite for sustainable agricultural production systems of the future.     

Application of digital soil mapping methods for identifying salinity management classes based on a study on coastal central China

In coastal China, there is an urgent need to increase land for agriculture. One solution is land reclamation from coastal tidelands, but soil salinization poses a problem. Thus, there is need to map saline areas and identify appropriate management strategies. One approach is the use of digital soil mapping. At the first stage, auxiliary data such as remotely sensed multispectral imagery can be used to identify areas of low agricultural productivity due to salinity. Similarly, proximal sensing instruments can provide data on the distribution of soil salinity. In this study, we first used multispectral QuickBird imagery (Bands 1–4) to provide information about crop growth and then EM38 data to indicate relative salt content using measurements of apparent soil electrical conductivity (EC_a) in the horizontal (EC_h) and vertical (EC_v) modes of operation. Second, we used a fuzzy k‐means (FKM) algorithm to identify three salinity management zones using the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), EC_h and EC_v/EC_h. The three identified classes were statistically different in terms of auxiliary and topsoil properties (e.g. soil organic matter) and more importantly in terms of the distribution of soil salinity (EC_e) with depth. The resultant three classes were mapped to demonstrate that remote and proximally sensed auxiliary data can be used as surrogates for identifying soil salinity management zones.     

黄土高原不同地貌类型区植被恢复潜力及其土地利用变化

黄土高原1999年开始的退耕还林（草）工程，对植被覆盖与土地利用结构产生了深刻影响，评估黄土高原未来植被恢复潜力、植树造林适宜区以及土地利用变化，对黄土高原生态保护和高质量发展具有重要意义。该研究基于北洛河流域2020年下垫面状况，借鉴"相似生境法"，对不同地貌类型区的未来恢复潜力、植树造林适宜区与土地利用变化进行了分析。结果表明：1）丘陵沟壑区目前平均植被盖度为61.9%，未来20~30 a仍有9.2%左右的上升空间，植被可恢复土地面积约占丘陵区的36.4%。土石山林区尚有11.5%的土地面积具有恢复余地，高塬沟壑区与阶地平原区植被盖度恢复余地很小。2）未来土地利用变化面积主要集中在丘陵沟壑区，与2020年相比，其耕地将减少47.4%，而林地与草地会增加0.7%与15.8%。土石山林区耕地将减少23.0%，林地与草地分别会增加0.2%与36.0%。3）基于"适地适树"原则下的情景模拟，高塬沟壑区与阶地平原区分别有279.16、233.73 km2面积可植树造林，而丘陵沟壑区大片可退耕土地适宜于自然恢复。结果表明，丘陵沟壑区仍是未来生态恢复重点关注区域，是黄河流域生态保护和高质量发展的热点区域。     

Validation of the ANOCOVA model for regional‐scale ECa to ECe calibration

Two approaches have emerged as the preferred means for assessing salinity at regional scale: (i) vegetative indices from satellite imagery (e.g., MODIS enhanced vegetative index, NDVI) and (ii) analysis of covariance (ANOCOVA) calibration of apparent soil electrical conductivity (EC_a) to salinity. The later approach is most recent and least extensively validated. It is the objective of this study to provide extensive validation of the ANOCOVA approach. The validation comprised 77 fields in California's Coachella Valley, ranging from 1.25 to 30.0 ha in size with an average size of 12.8 ha. Mobile electromagnetic induction (EMI) equipment surveyed the fields obtaining geospatial measurements of EC_a. Soil sample sites selected following EC_a‐directed soil sampling protocols characterized the range and spatial variation in EC_a across the field. From the data, a regional ANOCOVA model was developed. The regional ANOCOVA model successfully reduced cross‐validated, average log salinity prediction error (variance) estimate by more than 30% across the 77 fields and improved the depth‐averaged prediction accuracy in 58 of the 77 fields. The results show that the ANOCOVA modelling approach improves soil salinity predictions from EMI signal data in most of the surveys conducted, particularly fields where only a limited number of calibration sampling locations were available. The establishment of ANOCOVA models at each depth increment for a representative set of fields within a regional‐scale study area provides slope coefficients applicable to all future fields within the region, significantly reducing ground‐truth soil samples at future fields.     

基于电磁感应原理的沿海滩涂地下水矿化度快速测评技术

系统阐述了电磁感应式地下水矿化度快速测评技术的工作原理及关键设备,研究确定出进行沿海滩涂区地下水矿化度快速精确测评的电磁感应仪测定位或测定位组合,以及与其对应的地下水矿化度信息解译模型。结果表明：基于电磁感应原理的沿海滩涂地下水矿化度快速测评技术具有良好的信息解译精度,具有快速高效、需要投入少等优点;该项研究及其成果将对沿海滩涂地区矿化地下水管理及利用提供技术支撑。     

中国北方土石山区植被恢复及其生态效应研究进展

植树造林是建设美丽中国、推进生态文明建设、改善民生福祉的具体行动,是实现绿水青山就是金山银山的具体措施。北方土石山区植被稀少、土壤贫瘠、气候干旱、灾害频发,加之人类不合理的生产活动,使得区域内植被破坏严重,导致一系列生态与环境问题,形成大片岩石裸露地,水土流失严重,植被恢复是此区域生态恢复的关键。本文就目前北方土石山区植被恢复的研究现状及当前研究存在的问题进行了总结与评述,包括植被恢复中植被配置模式及造林技术的选择、影响植被恢复的环境因子、植被恢复的生态效应。讨论了不同树种配置及造林技术对造林成活率的影响,指出树种多样化、合理调控树种水分利用是土石山区植被恢复成功与否的关键。通过对土壤肥力、水分、地形及地带性差异对植被恢复的影响,以及植被恢复的水文、水土保持、土壤环境和生物多样性效应的讨论,发现土石山区植被恢复过程中,植被与环境之间相互影响、相互促进,加快了区域生态系统结构与功能的恢复与提升。同时发现土石山区内植被变化的地形效应研究相对缺乏,土壤养分对植被恢复的影响机制也还未明确。最后针对土石山区植被恢复过程中存在的树种选择不合理、研究时间尺度较短及数据资料有限、植被恢复经济效益研究不足等问题,提出筛选优良乡土树种搭配种植、建立植被演替长期定位监测网络、进行植被恢复综合效益监测与评价、明确植被对极端气候的响应机制,是下一步土石山区植被恢复工作中应重视和解决的重要问题。     

库布齐沙漠植被恢复对风沙土壤碳通量与碳储量的影响

为阐明库布齐沙漠植被恢复过程中土壤碳通量的时空动态特征及主控因子，明确土壤有机碳含量和储量的变化趋势，本研究以流动沙地、半固定沙地、藻结皮固定沙地和地衣苔藓混合结皮固定沙地为研究对象，运用静态暗箱–气相色谱法对风沙土壤碳通量及水热因子进行观测，并对土壤有机碳含量和密度进行测定和计算。结果表明，生长季内风沙土壤碳通量变异较大，季节动态与土壤温度基本一致，且随植被恢复碳通量呈递增趋势：混合结皮固定沙地(210.28 mg/(m~2·h))>藻结皮固定沙地(177.45 mg/(m~2·h))>半固定沙地(117.34 mg/(m~2·h))>流动沙地(65.61mg/(m~2·h))；土壤碳通量与各层土壤温度均显著正相关，除流动沙地土壤碳通量与深层土壤含水量显著负相关外，其余样地碳通量均与表层土壤含水量显著负相关；风沙土壤有机碳含量和密度随植被恢复而递增：混合结皮固定沙地(1.32 g/kg,0.94 kg/m~2)>藻结皮固定沙地(1.03 g/kg,0.74 kg/m~2)>半固定沙地(0.45 g/kg,0.36 kg/m~2)>流动沙地(0.27...     

Long‐term changes in the floristic composition and soil characteristics of reclaimed sodic land during eco‐restoration

The study was conducted under the “Uttar Pradesh Sodic Lands Reclamation Project” to examine changes that occurred in the reclaimed sodic land in two districts of Uttar Pradesh, India. The study focuses on long‐term seasonal changes in the floral diversity and soil characteristics of the reclaimed sodic land over a period of 10 y. The changes in the floristic composition, plant density, and soil characteristics (microbial biomass carbon [MBC], pH, exchangeable‐sodium percentage (ESP), and electrical conductivity) were compared among the different study plots after different years of sodic‐land reclamation. The study plots comprised reclaimed land with rice–wheat cultivation; semireclaimed land under rice cultivation only and nonreclaimed barren sodic land. There was a significant variation in the floristic composition of the three study plots. Dominance in the floristic composition was shifted from monocotyledonous weeds in the nonreclaimed sodic land to dicotyledonous weeds in the reclaimed land after 10 y of reclamation. Among the soil characteristics, the most remarkable changes were observed in soil MBC and ESP during the course of sodic‐land reclamation. Soil MBC increased up to 480% and ESP values decreased up to 79% in the reclaimed plots with reference to the nonreclaimed plots. The soil amelioration was more pronounced in the upper layer (0–30 cm) as compared to the lower layer (below 30 cm depth). A positive significant correlation was revealed between soil MBC and floristic composition of the reclaimed plots. These changes in floristic composition and soil characteristics could be used as good indicators of the eco‐restoration of the sodic lands. The present study provides useful insights in understanding the temporal progress of eco‐restoration in the reclaimed sodic lands.     

黄土高原生态工程区土壤容重及饱和导水率的分布特征

土壤水力性质是影响水分运动、溶质运移以及流域水文模型模拟的重要参数。近年来,黄土高原实施的退耕还林（草）工程、治沟造地工程等重大生态工程,影响了该区域的地形地貌、土壤水力性质等。深入研究流域尺度土壤容重（Bulk Density,BD）与饱和导水率（Ks）的动态变化特征,对于理解重大生态工程影响下的水文过程演变规律具有重要意义。本研究以黄土高原重大生态工程影响的典型小流域为对象,采用80 m×80 m的网格布点（89个样点）,分别于2016年9月（夏末）、11月（初冬）和2017年3月（初春）采集土壤表层（0～5 cm）环刀样品,分析BD和Ks的动态分布特征及其影响因素。结果表明：BD在0.93～1.61 g/cm3之间变动,Ks介于0.01～7.30 cm/min;BD呈弱变异性,变异系数（Coefficient of Variation,CV）为10%,而Ks呈强变异性（CV=166%）。坡面BD显著小于沟底（P<0.05）,而Ks则显著大于沟底（P<0.05）。坡面林地和草地BD表现出显著的季节性差异（P<0.05）,而Ks在林地、灌木和草地之间均表现出显著的季节性差异（P<0.05）。地形对流域内的土壤水力参数分布有显著影响,外界环境（温度）变化是决定BD和Ks呈季节性动态变化的重要因素。多因素方差分析表明土地利用类型对BD与Ks均有显著影响;采样时间对Ks有显著影响,对BD无显著影响。相关结果可为揭示重大生态工程区小流域土壤水力参数的动态变化规律及其主控因素提供数据支撑和理论参考,有助于小流域水文过程的模型模拟研究与精细调控。     

岩溶区不同土地利用方式对土壤有机碳碳库及周转时间的影响

通过土壤样品的室内培养,运用三库一级动力学理论,分析桂林毛村典型岩溶区旱地、灌丛、果园、林地4种不同土地利用类型下石灰土有机碳库容大小、各碳库平均周转时间及其影响因素。结果表明:4种土地利用类型土壤有机碳含量分别为15.41～20.10g/kg,13.07～31.16g/kg,9.38～14.74g/kg,30.82～37.52g/kg。活性有机碳占总有机碳的比例最小,分别为0.61%～0.93%,0.95%～1.24%,0.77%～1.00%,1.49%～1.66%。缓效性有机碳库分别占总有机碳含量的21.13%～30.18%,13.58%～23.46%,29.54%～46.58%,30.39%～33.84%。平均周转时间分别为7,8,7,12年。惰性有机碳占总有机碳的比例最高,分别为69.18%～78.26%,75.27%～85.47%,56.63%～69.70%,64.64%～68.12%。延长缓效性碳库驻留时间在一定程度上是提高土壤有机碳库的关键因素。相关分析表明,土壤有机碳总量、土壤碳酸钙含量、总钙量、土壤pH值、全氮含量、C/N与土壤有机碳各库库容及周转时间存在显著的正相关,腐殖质含量与土壤有机碳库及周转时间呈极显著正相关,土壤过氧化氢酶及脲酶活性显著影响土壤有机碳库含量及周转时间。     

侵蚀坡地草被快速恢复与控制水土流失技术研究

研究了在侵蚀坡地采用条沟—草块的特殊建植草地方法。在治理后的3个月内,用条沟—草块建植草地的小区其土壤侵蚀量仅为140 kg,比整地但无种植、原坡面和全垦等高种草的小区分别减少了823,249和670 kg。用条沟—草块建植草地的小区当年的土壤侵蚀为1 500 t/km2,比整地但无种植、原坡面和全垦等高种草分别减少了10 591,3 514和7 760 t/km2;第2 a以后,条沟—草块草地的土壤侵蚀量均在700t/km2以下。治理3 a后侵蚀坡地的草被物种由6种发展到16种。在侵蚀坡地治理当年,坡地的植被覆盖率就可达85%,能在短期内控制水土流失。     

北京市低山区水土保持林评价与分级

以北京低山区同龄油松(Pinus tabulaeformis)林、侧柏(Platycladus orientalis)林、刺槐(Robinia pseudoacacia)林和栎类(Ouercus liaotungensis)林为研究对象,设置32个30m×30m标准样地,结合当地实际情况,运用数理统计方法及专家咨询法筛选出三级共12个评价指标,构建水土保持林评价指标体系,建立评价综合模型,计算林分综合评价指数,并对各林分进行了评价。将水土保持林分为四级:一级水土保持林,综合评价值S≥8;二级水土保持林,综合评价值5≤S<8;三级水土保持林,综合评价值2≤S<5;四级水土保持林,综合评价值S<2。探讨了不同级别的水土保持生长状况及立地特征,并提出了合理的改造措施。     

西北荒漠绿洲高产区的水土状况及发展对策

以西北荒漠绿洲高产代表区张掖市为单元,分析了土地的质量和数量背景、生产力和生产潜力状况。认为：在现有的用水效率下,水资源已经不足,但通过实施节水措施可补缺有余。在近17年高产高投入状况下,除钾含量逐年下降外,农田土壤的物理结构、有机质、氮、磷等各种肥力因素呈持续优化状态。主要作物生产力已达到潜力值的73.4%。种植业中以蔬菜和制种纯收入最高,林果业次之,大田作物最低。蔬菜业中,集约化设施种植方式(日光温室和拱棚)高于地膜蔬菜。提高土地承载力的关键是水土环境工程的良性建设、调整优化农业结构、严格控制人口。     

2005-2020年淮海经济区耕地碳储量时空演变特征及碳汇区识别

淮海经济区垦殖率约70%,是中国粮食主产区之一,掌握其耕地碳储量时空变化规律、识别耕地碳汇碳源区,对保护区域耕地质量和发挥耕地生态系统碳汇功能,助力\