Isolation of Small Starch Granules and Determination of Their Fat Mimic Characteristics

Small starch granules from wheat and amaranth were isolated and examined by light microscopy (wheat), scanning electron microscopy (wheat and amaranth), and rapid viscosity (RVA) analysis. The isolated wheat and amaranth starches were incorporated into reduced‐fat frozen dessert mixes (2%, w/w) and the frozen desserts were characterized by sensory analysis for smoothness, creaminess, and preference. The results of the sensory analysis suggest that up to 50% of the fat in a frozen dessert may be replaced when substituted by these starches at the 2% level (w/w).     

White Pan Bread and Sugar‐Snap Cookies Containing Wheat Starch Phosphate,A Cross‐Linked Resistant Starch

Pup‐loaf bread was made with 10, 30, and 50% substitution of flour with wheat starch phosphate, a cross‐linked resistant starch (XL‐RS4), while maintaining flour protein level at 11.0% (14% mb) by adding vital wheat gluten. Bread with 30% replacement of flour with laboratory‐prepared XL‐RS4 gave a specific volume of 5.9 cm³/g compared with 6.3 g/cm³ for negative control bread (no added wheat starch), and its crumb was 53% more firm than the control bread after 1 day at 25°C, but 13% more firm after 7 days. Total dietary fiber (TDF) in one‐day‐old bread made with commercial XL‐RS4 at 30% flour substitution increased 3–4% (db) in the control to 19.2% (db) in the test bread, while the sum of slowly digestible starch (SDS) plus resistant starch (RS), determined by a modified Englyst method, increased from 24.3 to 41.8% (db). The reference amount (50 g, as‐is) of that test bread would provide 5.5 g of dietary fiber with 10% fewer calories than control bread. Sugar‐snap cookies were made at 30 and 50% flour replacement with laboratory‐prepared XL‐RS4, potato starch, high‐amylose (70%) corn starch, and commercial heat‐moisture‐treated high‐amylose (70%) corn starch. The shape of cookies was affected by the added starches except for XL‐RS4. The reference amount (30 g, as‐is) of cookies made with commercial XL‐RS4 at 30% flour replacement contained 4.3 g (db) TDF and 3.4 g (db) RS, whereas the negative control contained 0.4 g TDF and 0.6 g RS. The retention of TDF in the baked foods containing added XL‐RS4 was calculated to be >80% for bread and 100% for cookies, while the retention of RS was 35–54% for bread and 106–113% for cookies.     

Freeze-Thaw Stability of Amaranth Starch and the Effects of Salt and Sugars

Freeze-thaw stability of amaranth, corn, wheat, and rice starches was determined measuring the percent of syneresis by centrifugation. Thermal properties were calculated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The effects of salt (NaCl at 2 and 5%) and sugars (sucrose, glucose, and fructose at 10, 20, and 30%) on the freeze-thaw stability of amaranth starch were also studied. Based on DSC and centrifugation methods, amaranth starch had better stability after freezing and thawing through four cycles than did corn, wheat, and rice starches. Amaranth starch with added salt showed similar stability as compared with a control when measured by centrifugation and showed increased stability when measured by DSC. Adding sugars to amaranth starch gels had varying results, but for the most part, they showed similar or increased stability when compared with a control.     

Baking Formula Innovation to Eliminate Chlorine Treatment of Cake Flour

Chlorine treatment of soft wheat flour improves cake volume and produces a stiffer, more resilient crumb. Four pairs of chlorine‐treated and untreated flours were obtained. A selected portion of the area under the Rapid Visco Analyser hot pasting flour viscosity curve was used to determine how much starch could be used with a nonchlorine‐treated flour so that the area is equivalent to that produced by a chlorine‐treated cake flour with no added starch. Replacement of nonchlorine‐treated flour with up to 43% starch produced areas under the pasting curve that were equivalent to those produced by chlorine‐treated flours. Increased concentration of dried egg albumen plus added soya lecithin and xanthan gum were included in the formulation containing starch and nonchlorine treated flour to produce a new basic ingredient set. The basic ingredient set was evaluated for its influence on cake geometry, crumb structure, and crumb texture response to compression (hardness and spring‐back rate). High‐ratio white layer cakes using the new basic ingredient set produced similar or better cake quality characteristics than those produced using control chlorine‐treated flours. The same new basic ingredient set was used to produce pound cakes, cupcakes, and sheet cakes using nonchlorinated flours. The geometry and objective texture of those cakes also were equivalent to respective cakes produced with chlorine‐treated flour. The basic ingredient set does not require any special flour treatment.     

不同热处理方式对小麦粉特性及其蒸饼品质的影响

目前蒸饼的制作大多采用传统的半烫面工艺,工序较为复杂,为解决这一问题,该研究采用不同热处理方式（蒸汽处理、微波处理、干热处理）对小麦粉进行热处理,研究了不同处理方式对小麦粉的糊化特性、热机械学特性、微观结构等的影响,并将处理后的小麦粉添加到未处理的小麦粉中制成蒸饼,考察了所制得的蒸饼的水分分布、质构特性及感官品质。结果表明：3种热处理的适当处理时间都可以提高小麦粉的黏度和回生值;经干热处理和微波处理后的小麦粉的破损淀粉含量高于经蒸汽处理的小麦粉。3种热处理小麦粉的添加均可以提高面团的吸水率,蒸汽处理小麦粉的添加使面团耐揉性降低、蒸煮稳定性提高,微波和干热处理小麦粉的添加使面团的耐揉性和内部结构稳定性提高。适当处理时间的热处理小麦粉的添加可以提高蒸饼的结合水含量、硬度、弹性和咀嚼性等。其中,经蒸汽处理40 min、微波处理2 min和干热处理30 min后的小麦粉的添加制得的蒸饼有相对适中的强韧性、较高的结合水含量和感官评分。该研究结果表明添加热处理后的小麦粉代替传统的烫面工艺制作高品质蒸饼具有可行性,同时能够为蒸饼的工业化生产提供相应的基础数据和一定的理论指导。     

Effects of Extraction Rates of Wheat Flour on Phyllo (Yufka) Properties at Different Storage Temperatures

Phyllo sheets were produced with flour obtained at different extraction rates (53, 58, or 67%), and stored at 4 and 25°C. Physical, chemical, and sensory properties of fresh and stored phyllo were researched. Fresh phyllo samples from wheat flour at 53% extraction rate were thinner (0.4 mm) and had whiter color (L* = 87.6). Textural properties and overall sensory acceptability of phyllo samples significantly decreased (P ≤ 0.01) with increased extraction rates and storage times. At the end of four days, toughness and extensibility decreased from 0.88 N and 10.9 mm to 0.65 N and 6.7 mm at 4°C and to 0.45 N and 5.6 mm at 25°C. The 53% extraction rate was more suitable for producing phyllo. The shelf life of phyllo samples for preparing borek was determined four days at 4°C and two days at 25°C according to acid contents and sensory properties.     

Effect of Shortening Replacement with Oatrim on the Physical and Rheological Properties of Cakes

Oatrim (oat β‐glucan amylodextrins) was evaluated as a fat substitute in a cake system. The physical and rheological properties of cakes containing shortening replaced with 20, 40, and 60% by weight of Oatrim were characterized. The increase in the specific gravity of the cakes and the decrease in the viscosity as more shortening was replaced with Oatrim were correlated with the change in the cake volume. The number of air bubbles present in the cake batters varied significantly; however, the size of the observed bubbles did not change. The cakes containing more Oatrim displayed a higher starch gelatinization temperature due to the amylodextrins in the Oatrim. The dynamic rheological properties of the cakes were investigated during baking and correlated with the differential scanning calorimetry results. The oscillatory shear storage moduli decreased upon initial heating, then increased due to starch gelatinization, and finally reached a plateau value that varied based on the sample composition. Moreover, increased replacement of shortening with Oatrim resulted in higher observed oscillatory shear storage moduli. The cakes prepared with up to 20% by weight of Oatrim did not evidence significant changes in softness (P < 0.01) and generally exhibited similar physical properties to the control cake.     

Effect of Flour Extraction Rate on White and Red Winter Wheat Flour Compositions and Tortilla Texture

Wheat flours commercially produced at 74, 80, and 100% extraction rates made from hard white winter wheat (WWF) and hard red winter wheat (WRF) were used to produce tortillas at a commercial-scale level. Flour characteristics for moisture, dry gluten, protein, ash, sedimentation volume, falling number, starch damage, and particle-size distribution were obtained. Farinograms and alveograms were also obtained for flour-water dough. A typical northern Mexican formula was used in the laboratory to test the tortilla-making properties of the flours. Then commercial-scale tortilla-baking trials were run on each flour. The baked tortillas were stored at room and refrigeration temperatures for 0, 1, 2, and 3 days. Maximum stress and rollability were measured every day. Tortilla moisture, color, diameter, weight, and thickness were measured for each treatment. Finally, tortilla acceptability was tested by an untrained sensory panel. Analyses of variance (ANOVA) were performed on the data. WWF had higher protein content, dry gluten, sedimentation volume, and water absorption than the WRF. The WWF was the strongest flour based on farinograph development time and alveograph deformation work. It also produced the most extensible dough measured with the alveograph (P/L). Flour protein and ash contents, water absorption, and tenacity increased directly with the flour extraction rate. Both WWF and WRF performed well in commercial-scale baking trials of tortillas. Tortillas made with both types of flours at 74 and 80% extraction rates had the best firmness and rollability. However, tortillas made with WWF 80% had the best color (highest L value). Tortillas prepared with 100% extraction rate flour were also well accepted by the sensory panel, had good textural characteristics, and became only slightly firm and slightly less rollable after three days of storage at room temperature.     

Breadmaking Use of Andean Crops Quinoa,Kañiwa,Kiwicha, and Tarwi

The effect of addition of flours from the highly nutritious Andean crops quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), kañiwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule), kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus), and tarwi (Lupinus mutabilis) has been investigated in wheat doughs and fresh bread quality. The thermomechanical profile of wheat doughs and bread quality has been explored by increasing substitution of wheat flour at 0–100% by Andean crop flours. Dough blends were evaluated using the Chopin Mixolab device, whereas bread quality assessment comprised sensory (overall acceptability) and physicochemical (moisture, specific volume, texture, color) determinations in composite breads. In general, no breads with aerated crumb structure could be obtained from 100% Andean crop flours, with the exception of quinoa breads that had overall sensory values about half a completely perfect score, and which were not significantly different from the breads made from a 50:50 blend of wheat and quinoa. Replacement of wheat flour by ≤12.5% (tarwi), 25% (kañiwa), and 50% (kiwicha), respectively, still produced breads with good sensory acceptability but variable color and doughs with acceptable thermomechanical patterns. Partial substitution of wheat flour by Andean crop flours constitutes a viable option to improve the nutritional value of the breads, with acceptable technological performance of dough blends and composite breads.     

Physicochemical and Structural Characteristics of Flours and Starches from Waxy and Nonwaxy Wheats

A waxy spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotype was fractionated into flour and starch by roller and wet‐milling, respectively. The resultant flour and starch were evaluated for end‐use properties and compared with their counterparts from hard and soft wheats and with commercial waxy and nonwaxy corn (Zea mays L.) starches. The waxy wheat flour had exceptionally high levels of water absorption and peak viscosity compared with hard or soft wheat flour. The flour formed an intermediate‐strength dough that developed rapidly and was relatively susceptible to mixing. Analysis by differential scanning calorimetry and X‐ray diffractometry showed waxy wheat starch had higher gelatinization temperatures, a greater degree of crystallization, and an absence of an amylose‐lipid complex compared with nonwaxy wheat. Waxy wheat and corn starches showed greater refrigeration and freeze‐thaw stabilities than did nonwaxy starches as demonstrated by syneresis tests. They were also similar in pasting properties, but waxy wheat starch required lower temperature and enthalpy to gelatinize. The results show analogies between waxy wheat and waxy corn starches, but waxy wheat flour was distinct from hard or soft wheat flour in pasting and mixing properties.     

Evaluation of White Salted Noodles Enriched with Oat Flour

Oat consumption is regarded as having significant health benefits. The enrichment of white salted noodles with oat flour would provide a potential health benefit but may affect the texture and sensory quality. Oat cultivars grown in Western Australia (Yallara, Kojonup, Mitika, Carrolup, and new line SV97181‐8) and a commercial oat variety were milled into flour and added to wheat flour at 10, 20, and 30% to produce oat‐enriched white salted noodles. The purpose of the study was to determine the quality characteristics of the oat flours and to assess the influence the oat flour blends had on noodle texture, color, and sensory characteristics. In addition, another goal was to determine whether the different oat cultivars had similar potential to provide health benefits by measuring the β‐glucan content before and after processing. The results indicated that protein, ash content, and noodle firmness increased with the increased percentage of oat flour in the noodle formulations, whereas the pasting properties of the noodle wheat–oat flour blends did not differ significantly. The color of raw noodle sheets and boiled noodles changed significantly with oat incorporation and resulted in lower lightness/brightness, higher redness, lower yellowness, and lower color stability in comparison to standard wheat white salted noodles. Noodles made with the lowest oat percentage (10%) scored highest for all sensory parameters and were significantly different in appearance, color, and overall acceptability compared with noodles made with 20 and 30% oat flour. The β‐glucan content of the flour blends increased with the increase in the level of oat incorporation but subsequently decreased during processing into noodles. The decrease in the β‐glucan content varied across the different oat cultivars and levels of incorporation into the noodles. A new oat cultivar, SV97181‐8, exhibited the least β‐glucan loss during processing. In this study, the quality characteristics of white salted noodles enriched with oat flour from Western Australian cultivars were determined to provide essential information for the commercial development of healthier noodles.     

Properties and Composition of Turkish Flat Bread (Bazlama) Supplemented with Barley Flour and Wheat Bran

In this study, effects of increasing levels of wheat bran and barley flour on dough properties and bazlama quality were investigated. Bazlama is a flat bread commonly consumed in Turkey. Flours of wheat cultivars Gün and Gerek, flour of barley cultivar Tokak, and Gerek bran mixture were used. Part of the wheat flours were replaced with barley flour at 10, 20, 30, and 40% levels and Gerek bran mixture at 5, 10, 15, and 20% levels. Farinogram properties of mixtures were determined. Bazlama samples were subjected to sensory analysis for external appearance, shape and symmetry, crust color, crumb color and structure, mouthfeel, taste and aroma. Increasing levels of bran and barley flour caused decreases in all sensory properties. The deteriorative effect of barley flour on bazlama properties was generally more obvious when compared to bran supplementation. However, all bazlama samples were considered acceptable. Penetrometer values of bazlama samples showed that increasing levels of barley flour created significantly softer bazlama. However, in bran-supplemented bazlama samples, effect of bran on softness was found to be insignificant in both cultivars. Bazlama samples supplemented with bran had lower L values and higher a and b values for color when compared to those supplemented with barley flour. In all samples, effect of increasing levels of barley flour on residual β-glucan was found to be insignificant in both cultivars. Acid detergent fiber and neutral detergent fiber values increased with increasing levels of bran, and the changes in both cultivars were similar.     

Great Northern Bean Could Improve the Nutritional Value of Instant Noodles

Instant noodles were prepared by substituting hard red winter (HRW) wheat flour with Great Northern bean powder (GNBP) at selected levels (0–60%) using a pilot‐scale noodle processing machine. The functional properties, water absorption, water solubility, and pasting profiles of flour mixtures were tested to verify the process tolerances of ingredients. Prepared noodle samples were evaluated for color, cooking quality, texture, and sensory properties. Slight color differences, an increased cooking loss, and reduced chewiness, cohesiveness, and hardness were observed in cooked noodles that were prepared with GNBP up to 25% of HRW wheat flour weight. The results suggest that HRW wheat flour could be replaced up to 20% (w/w) with GNBP, while still using the conventional processing conditions, to improve the product nutritional value (i.e., increased protein and fiber contents and reduced fat content) (P < 0.05).     

Partial Characterization of Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) Starch

Laboratory-isolated buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) starch was compared to commercial corn and wheat starches. Buckwheat starch granules (2.9–9.3 μm) were round and polygonal with some holes and pits on the surface. Buckwheat starch had higher amylose content, waterbinding capacity, and peak viscosity, and it had lower intrinsic viscosity when compared with corn and wheat starches. Buckwheat starch also showed restricted swelling power at 85–95°C and lower solubility in water at 55–95°C and was more susceptible to acid and enzymatic attack. Gelatinization temperatures, determined by differential scanning calorimetry, were 61.1–80.1°C for buckwheat starch compared to 64.7–79.2°C and 57.1–73.5°C for corn and wheat starches, respectively. A second endotherm observed at 84.5°C was an amylose-lipid complex attributed to the internal lipids in buckwheat starch, as evidenced by selective extraction. The retrogradation of buckwheat, corn, and wheat starch gels was examined after storage at 25, 4, and -12°C for 1–15 days. In general, buckwheat starch retrogradation was slower than that of corn and wheat starch, but it increased as storage time increased, as did that of the other starch pastes. When the values of the three storage temperatures were averaged for each storage period analyzed, buckwheat starch gels showed a lower percentage of retrogradation than did corn and wheat starch gels. Buckwheat starch also had a lower percentage of water syneresis when stored at 4°C for 3–10 days and had better stability to syneresis after three freeze-thaw cycles at -12 and 25°C.     

Influence of Milk,Corn Starch,and Baking Conditions on the Starch Digestibility,Gelatinization, and Fracture Stress of Biscuits

Dough for nontraditional semisweet biscuits—prepared with wheat flour or replacing part of the wheat flour with corn starch, with or without skim milk—was baked at two oven temperatures, 120 or 170°C, until reaching moisture content and water activity lower than 6% and 0.5, respectively. Assays of fracture stress, differential scanning calorimetry, X‐ray diffraction, and starch digestibility were performed. Results showed that biscuits containing milk had the highest fracture stress, and biscuits baked at low temperature were harder than biscuits baked at high temperature. The degree of starch gelatinization during baking was higher when dough was baked at 170°C, compared with dough baked at 120°C. The decrease in gelatinization coincides with the decrease in the height and surface of peaks at 15 and 23° in the X‐ray diffraction patterns. Milk and corn starch did not affect the starch digestibility of biscuits, but biscuits baked at 170°C presented lower fracture stress and higher starch digestibility than biscuits baked at 120°C.     

Evaluation of Modified Amaranth Starch as Shell Material for Encapsulation of Probiotics

The objective of this study was to develop with thermoplastic extrusion amaranth starch derivatives and to characterize and evaluate their functionality as encapsulating agents of Bifidobacterium breve ATCC 15700 and Lactobacillus casei ATCC 334 during spray drying. The survival of both probiotics during storage at different water activities and at two storage temperatures, their viability in a food model system, and their tolerance to a simulated gastrointestinal tract were determined. Native amaranth starch was chemically modified to obtain phosphorylated, acetylated, and succinylated starch. Starch derivatives were reduced in viscosity, and the solubility in water was increased. In general, the modified amaranth starches and control corn starch did not provide good protection to both probiotics during storage at 25°C. However, there was excellent viability during storage at 4°C for both probiotics. Microcapsules showed a uniform coverage of the cells. Storage for 35 days at 25°C of blends of oat with succinylated amaranth microcapsules with probiotics had a lower reduction. Also, this succinylated amaranth starch containing probiotics showed a higher resistance to simulated gastrointestinal conditions. The results with food model systems supported the applicability of the modified starches.     

Gluten Enhances Cooking,Textural, and Sensory Properties of Oat Noodles

Whole grain oats are widely regarded as conferring significant health benefits. Composite flour of whole grain oat flour, wheat flour, and tapioca starch in the ratio 1:1:0.16 was formulated to make oat noodles with the addition of gluten at various levels. The influence of gluten on pasting and gelling properties of composite flour, and on cooking, textural, and sensory properties of salted oat noodles was evaluated. Addition of gluten decreased the paste viscosity, reduced hardness and springiness of gel, reduced cooking yield, cooking loss, and broken ratio during cooking, and increased the tensile strength and firmness of cooked noodles. Scanning electron microscopy showed that gluten tightened the network of protein in the noodles by forming oriented fibrils. Addition of gluten had little effect on the color of raw and cooked oat noodles, which were somewhat yellow. Sensory evaluation indicated that addition of gluten could enhance the overall acceptability of cooked oat noodles. This study may stimulate further interest in using functional whole grain cereal ingredients in developing healthy staple foods.     

Flavor Retention and Physical Properties of Rice Cakes Prepared from Coated Rice Grain

Flavored rice cakes are produced commercially by spraying a flavor coating on the cake surface. This study describes a method of making a flavored coating that is applied to individual rice grains before puffing and results in a more uniform flavor distribution. Rice was coated at 5% or 10% levels with coating materials made of jet‐cooked (JC) starch or starch cooked in a water bath (WB), corn starch powder, salt, and a flavor compound. The viscosity of coating materials made with WB starch was twice that of coatings made of JC starch. Rice coated at 10% level had decreased specific density of rice cakes. Rice cakes made from coated grain were similar in appearance to cakes made from uncoated rice but had higher flexural strength. Retention of flavor volatiles after puffing the coated grain was 82.8–56.8% for apple, 72.5–40.3% for anise, and 52.5–24.8% for onion flavor. The flavor volatiles measured in the rice cakes decreased during a three‐month storage period to 49.3% for apple, 25.8% for anise, and 10.1% for onion flavor. Slightly higher retention of flavor volatiles was observed in cakes made with WB starch than in cakes made with JC starch. The difference in retention of flavor volatiles between starch slurry or starch‐oil emulsion treatments was small.     

Sensory Evaluation of Barley Chocolate Chip Cookies by Consumers with Different Demographic Background and Eating Patterns

Health organizations have recommended an increase in consumption of whole grains, total dietary fiber, and soluble fiber to help reduce the potential risk factor for the development of type‐2 diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease, among others. The purpose of this project was to determine the sensory characteristics of chocolate chip (CC) cookies containing a high‐soluble fiber whole barley flour (HSFWB). Cookies with 0, 30, 50, and 70% HSFWB were evaluated for appearance, color, flavor, texture, and overall acceptability using a 9‐point hedonic scale. Forty‐nine students, faculty, and staff tested the cookies on three different days. Demographic and behavioral data on age, gender, ethnicity, frequency of eating CC cookies, daily effort to consume fiber (FD), consumption of reduced‐fat (RF) cookies, and texture preference (TP) of CC cookies were collected. The 50% HSFWB cookie could be potentially marketed among older consumers (22+), males, Hispanics, individuals who consume CC cookies at least once a week, those making a FD in their diet, persons who consume RF cookies, as well as those who have no TP for CC cookies. A response surface relating flavor and texture to overall acceptability produced almost equivalent results to the multivariate PLS results in terms of predicting overall acceptability, which facilitates analysis and interpretation.     

Baking Performance of Durum and Soft Wheat Flour in a Sponge-Dough Breadmaking Procedure

Breadmaking properties were determined for formulations that included durum, soft, and spring wheat flour, using a pound-loaf sponge-dough baking procedure. Up to 60% durum or soft wheat flour plus 10% spring wheat flour could be incorporated at the sponge stage for optimum dough-handling properties. At remix, the dough stage required 30% spring wheat flour. Bread made with 100% spring wheat flour was used as a standard for comparison. Bread made with 60% durum flour exhibited internal crumb color that was slightly yellow. When storing pound bread loaves for 72 hr, crumb moisture content remained unchanged. Crumb firmness and enthalpy increased the most in bread made with 60% soft wheat flour. Crumb firmness increased the least in bread made with 100% spring wheat flour. Enthalpy changed the least in bread made with 60% durum flour. Crumb moisture content was significantly correlated with crumb firmness (r = -0.82) and enthalpy (r = -0.65). However, crumb moisture content was specific for each type of flour and a function of flour water absorption; therefore, these correlations should be interpreted with caution. Crumb firmness and enthalpy were significantly correlated (r = 0.65). Ball-milling flour resulted in an increase in water absorption of ≈2% and in crumb moisture content of ≈0.5% but had no effect on either crumb firmness or enthalpy.