The physiology of tiller death in grasses. 2. Causes of tiller death in a grass sward

The causes of tiller death in a 2-year-old perennial ryegrass sward were examined between April and August 1977. Physiological causes accounted for most tiller deaths and grazing by slugs and rodents was more important than the damage caused by stem-boring larvae. Tillers which died were mainly small and vegetative, although some flowering tillers died prematurely. Low nutrient status delayed but did not prevent tiller death. Using ¹⁴CO₂ it was shown that small tillers fixed relatively less radiocarbon than did larger tillers and they did not receive much support for their carbon economy. Selective defoliation showed that in April defoliated tillers imported radiocarbon from undefoliated tillers but that in July at anthesis an undefoliated reproductive tiller retained most of the carbon it fixed, despite its vascular association with defoliated tillers. It appears that much of the tiller death during the period April-August is due to the failure of the more favourably placed tillers to support other tillers which are heavily shaded.     

Response of Spikelet Number per Panicle in Rice Cultivars to Three Transplanting Densities

Abstract

Spikelet number per panicle (SPP), differentiated spikelet number per panicle (D-SPP), and preflowering aborted spikelet number per panicle (A-SPP) were examined in five rice cultivars at three planting densities (HD; high, MD; medium, LD; low planting density) in the field condition. Rice plants at LD produced a higher panicle number per plant but lower panicle number per unit area, accompanied by higher D-SPP and SPP, on average. A-SPP and the ratio of A-SPP to D-SPP (%A) showedno consistent trends. There was a broader range of D-SPP values at LD than at HD because of larger D-SPP in higher order panicles (panicles with a higher spikelet number). D-SPP was smaller in lower order panicles in all cultivars and years, whereas %A increased. D-SPP and SPP of each panicle were positively correlated with tiller size (tiller height, leaf area, and neck internode diameter). Spikelet production efficiency for D-SPP or for SPP (spikelet number per leaf area) of each tiller was higher in IR65564-44-51 (NPT65) and Akihikari than in the other cultivars, indicating a greater capacity of tillers to produce spikelets or support spikelet growth. In each cultivar except NPT65, spikelet production efficiency for D-SPP increased as panicle order decreased, whereas spikelet production efficiency for SPP remained constant or decreased. This finding indicates that irrespective of planting density, lower order panicles produce more spikelets than they can afford physiologically, but they were regulated downward to a nearly constant value in four cultivars. In NPT65 different from other cultivars, spikelet production efficiency for D-SPP was lower in lower order panicles.     

Effects of twice harvesting on total dry matter yield of rice

We examined the effect of twice harvesting of forage rice with the first harvest at the full heading stage on total dry matter yield in the cultivars Taporuri, Mohretsu, and Hinohikari and in line Saikaishi 253 in southwestern Japan. Taporuri produced the highest total dry matter yield, with a value 60% higher than that of Hinohikari. The first crop of Taporuri had a longer duration of vegetative growth than those of Mohretsu and Hinohikari, and had the highest dry matter yield because of its greater weight per tiller than Hinohikari and its more tillers per square meter than Saikaishi 253, which had a similar duration of vegetative growth. The second crops of Mohretsu, Taporuri, and Saikaishi 253 had longer vegetative growth and higher dry matter yields than Hinohikari. Dry matter yields of both crops were closely related to the duration of vegetative growth and the weight per tiller, but not to tillers per square meter. These results suggest that cultivars with a long duration of vegetative growth, high weight per tiller, and adequate tillers per square meter can produce high dry matter yield in both crops. There was a significant interaction (P < 0.05) in total dry matter yield between cultivar or line and cultivation type. The total dry matter yield of Taporuri in twice harvesting was about 10% higher than that in once harvesting, whereas that of Hinohikari was about 10% lower. The suitability for twice harvesting ([total dry matter yield in twice harvesting]/[total dry matter yield in once harvesting]) was significantly positively correlated (r = 0.875) with the increase in dry weight before the full heading stage, but significantly negatively correlated (r = −0.903) with the increase in dry weight between full heading and the yellow ripe stage. Thus, cultivars with a high increase in dry weight before full heading appear to be more suitable for twice harvesting than those with a high increase between full heading and the yellow ripe stage. In addition, our study showed that twice harvesting can prevent lodging in Taporuri, thereby increasing the suitability of this cultivar as a forage rice. Our results suggest that twice harvesting can be performed in southwestern Japan and warmer regions.     

Yield formation of CO2-enriched hybrid rice cultivar Shanyou 63 under fully open-air field conditions

Hybrid indica rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivars play an important role in rice production system due to its heterosis, resistance to environmental stress, large panicle and high yield potential. However, no attention has been given to its yield responses to rising atmospheric [CO₂] in conjunction with nitrogen (N) availability. Therefore we conducted a free air CO₂ enrichment (FACE) experiment at Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China (119°42′0′′E, 32°35′5′′N), in 2004–2006. A three-line hybrid indica rice cv. Shanyou 63 was grown at ambient and elevated (ca. 570 μmol mol⁻¹) [CO₂] under two levels of supplemental N (12.5 g Nm⁻² and 25 g Nm⁻²). Elevated [CO₂] had no effect on phenology, but substantially enhanced grain yield (+34%). The magnitude of yield response to [CO₂] was independent of N fertilization, but varied among different years. On average, elevated [CO₂] increased the panicle number per square meter by 10%, due to an increase in maximum tiller number under enrich [CO₂], while productive tiller ratio remained unaffected. Spikelet number per panicle also showed an average increase of 10% due to elevated [CO₂], which was supported by increased plant height and stem dry weight per tiller. Meanwhile, elevated [CO₂] caused a significant enhancement in both filled spikelet percentage (+5%) and individual grain weight (+4%). Compared with the two prior FACE studies on rice, hybrid indica rice cultivar appears to profit much more from elevated [CO₂] than japonica rice cultivar (ca. +13%), not only due to its stronger sink generation, but also enhanced capacity to utilize the carbon sources in a high [CO₂] environment. The above data has significant implication with respect to N strategies and cultivar selection under projected future [CO₂] levels.     

Is there a tiller morphology ideotype for yield differences in perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.)?

The objectives of this study were to measure the variability in ‘realized’ tiller morphology and identify whether there are emergent generalizations about a tiller ideotype for productivity or survival. Morphological traits during the vegetative growth stage were measured for 2 years in the field for eight perennial ryegrass cultivars: six diploid and two tetraploid cultivars under low and high nitrogen fertilizer (50 and 225 kg N ha^?1 year^?1 respectively). Traits measured were lamina width, length and area; pseudo‐stem length and diameter; an index of tiller shape; tiller dry weight; tiller density; and herbage mass. Almost all the traits differed significantly between cultivars and significant correlations were found between the 2 years. Principal component analysis identified that tiller morphology and dry‐matter yield were independent. No trait associations indicating alternative cultivar‐specific tiller morphologies were detected but cultivars differed in tiller size. The patterns of change between the 2 years indicated a possible morphological trajectory as swards age. The genetic compensatory relationship between tiller size and density had a 1:1 slope, indicative of constant yield. This implies that larger tillers would be more leafy, and higher leafiness of tetraploid over diploid cultivars was confirmed by the leaf:non‐leaf ratio and tiller shape index.     

The relationship between tiller appearance in spring and contribution to dry-matter yield in perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) cultivars differing in heading date

The relative contribution of tillers present in April and those appearing in consecutive periods in spring was assessed for perennial ryegrass cultivars in the three maturity groups (early, intermediate‐ and late‐heading). Each group was represented by two diploid and one tetraploid cultivar each in plots in their third (2000) and fourth (2001) harvest years in three replicated blocks receiving an average of 325 kg N ha^?1 and cut seven (in 2001) or eight (in 2000) times annually. ‘Main’ tillers and their daughters were marked with colour‐coded PVC‐covered wire loops in early April as were daughters which appeared in consecutive periods between harvests, the loop colour identifying the period of origin of the tiller. Tillers were harvested at cutting height (5 cm) before the plots were harvested and the herbage from tillers with the same colour code bulked per plot. Tillers were identified retrospectively as ‘reproductive’ if they had been decapitated at the previous harvest. Dry‐matter yield was higher in the early than late‐heading cultivars in April and early May but this was reversed in harvests in late May and June. The early heading group had a lower lamina content than the late‐heading group during reproduction growth, both due to the reproductive tillers (mainly those which overwintered) having a lower leaf content and to their being fewer and smaller vegetative tillers during the reproductive phase than for the late‐heading group. Turnover of tillers was high in spring due to decapitation of reproductive tillers and rapid post‐flowering tillering. This was particularly pronounced in the early heading group which also had slightly more tillers marked in April which were subsequently decapitated than in the other maturity groups, i.e. 0·56 compared with 0·44 for the late‐maturing group. Mean ratios of rate of death: rate of tillering for 3 years (1999–2001) for the early and late‐heading groups were 0·8 and 0·4, respectively, for April–May and 1·1 and 2·4, respectively, for June indicating the different patterns in tiller turnover for the two extreme maturity groups. Information on tiller origin and contribution to yield can be used to refine tiller‐based grass growth models.     

Tiller traits of spring cereals under tiller-depressing long day conditions

Long days partially depress tiller growth of spring cereals. In this study we characterised and quantified growing conditions and cultivar-induced variation in tiller traits and contribution of tillers to grain yield. Experiments were done at two locations in southern Finland, incorporating two nitrogen fertiliser application rates (80 and 120 kg N ha⁻¹) and 12 two-row barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), 10 six-row barley, ten oat (Avena sativa L.) and 11 wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars. Spring cereal species differed significantly in their tillering: two-row barley was superior compared with other spring cereals, with the highest number and growth capacity of tillers and head-bearing tillers. Grain yield produced by tillers was, however, always modest compared with that of main shoots, ranging from 13% and 15% in oat and wheat to 20% in six-row barley and 64% in two-row barley. Cultivar and growing condition-induced differences were marked in tiller traits, but tillers were never able to out-yield the main shoot. This is likely to be emphasised by standard use of high seeding rates. Tillers are dominated by the main shoot under long day conditions at high latitudes, and tiller yield potential remains clearly underutilised even under conditions favouring growth.     

Effect of heading date of perennial ryegrass cultivars on tillering and tiller development in spring and summer

Three cultivars (two diploid and one tetraploid) in each of three maturity groups (early, intermediate and late) of perennial ryegrass were sown in 10 m² plots, replicated four times, in Northern Ireland in June 1997 in a study of the effect of heading date on tiller development (including initiation to flower) and turnover of tillers produced at specific times in spring in 1998 and 1999. The plots were harvested seven times in each year. Annual dry‐matter production was similar for all groups in each year. In spring and early summer of both years, tiller density of the diploid cultivars was 1·5 times greater than that of the tetraploid cultivars and the mean tiller density over all swards in June was about 0·40 times greater than that in April. Maximum proportions of reproductive tillers in the early, intermediate and late maturity groups, determined from apical dissections, were found in early April, mid‐May and early June, respectively. Although a high proportion of tillers, which were present when annual observations commenced in spring, was decapitated at the first harvest in the early group, the previous population density was maintained by rapid production of new tillers during May, including those from suppressed tiller buds during reproduction. It is concluded that the relationship between heading date and rate of tiller turnover (including flowering) at specified times in spring is important in sward management throughout the early part of the growing season and should be taken into account in tiller‐based grass growth models.     

稀植条件下杂交稻分蘖成穗规律和穗粒结构研究

研究了19.5,13.5和7.5穴/m2 3个种植密度下杂交稻组合中优6号和两优培九不同时期的分蘖成穗规律和穗粒结构.结果表明,稀植促进分蘖发生,并导致最高分蘖期和有效分蘖期延迟,13.5和7.5穴/m2比19.5穴/m2的最高分蘖期分别推迟7和14 d;随种植密度下降,中后期发生的分蘖在茎蘖数中的比例提高,相应成穗率也提高;早期分蘖所成的穗与后期分蘖所成穗的每穗粒数差异较大,结实率差异较小,两者的产量差异主要由穗粒数差异引起;随种植密度下降,分蘖力较弱的组合产量显著下降,而分蘖力较强的组合产量没有差异.     

Relationship between Dry Weight at Heading and the Number ofSpikelets on Individual Rice Tillers

Abstract

The objectives of this study were to identify the growth parameters involved in determining the number of spikelets on an individual tiller (ST) and to elucidate how ST is determined in rice (Oryza sativa L.). We examined the correlation of ST with the dry weight (DWT), leaf area (LAT), and the amount of nitrogen (NT) at heading for individual tillers grown under different conditions that were expected to affect spikelet production. In 1999, the japonica rice cultivars “Mineasahi” (short-duration), “Hinohikari” (intermediate-duration), and “Akebono” (long-duration) were transplanted in a paddy field on two different dates (EARLY and LATE). In 2000, Hinohikari was grown under three different treatments (gibberellic acid application, nitrogen topdressing, and thinning of hills at panicle initiation) and without treatment (control). Covariance and partial correlation analyses indicated that ST was positively and essentially correlated with DWT rather than with LAT and NT. The regression of ST on DWT was stable within each cultivar regardless of the treatment, year, tiller order, and number of differentiated spikelets. The slope of the regression was the steepest in the short-duration cultivar. These results suggest that the steep slope is desirable for high-yielding cultivars with large panicles. We conclude that ST is mostly determined by dry matter production of an individual tiller regardless of the number of differentiated spikelets. We present a diagram showing the relationship between dry matter production and the number of differentiated, surviving, and degenerated spikelets on an individual tiller.     

Effects of the Tillering Nodes on the Main Stem of a Chinese Large-Panicle-Type Rice Cultivar,Yangdao 4, on the Growth and Yield-Related Characteristics in Relation to Cropping Season

Abstract

Using a Chinese large-panicle-type high-yielding indica rice cultivar, Yangdao 4 (YD), pot experiments were carried out to determine the effects of the removal of the lower nodal primary tillers on the growth and yield-related characteristics in comparison with a Japanese cultivar, Hinohikari (HH), with almost the same growth duration. The plants with all tillers remaining (Cont), those with tillers from the 5th and higher nodes (T5) and those with tillers from the 8th and higher nodes (T8) were prepared by removing the other tillers and grown in early, normal and late cropping seasons, sowing in late April, May and June, respectively. The lowest nodal primary tillers in each group emerged earlier and the number of days from sowing to flag leaf expansion and to full heading stage was reduced in the late cropping season, especially in HH. The maximum number of stems and number of panicles were larger in HH than in YD, and tended to be higher in the order of Cont > T5 > T8 plants. The average panicle weight per stem was higher in YD than in HH and higher in the order T8 > T5 > Cont. Panicle weight per hill was higher in YD than in HH in each cropping season and higher in early cropping season in both cultivars. Panicle weight decreased with delayed tiller emergence in YD, but not in HH. Panicle weight was more closely related to straw weight in YD than in HH. Therefore, the promotion of vegetative growth by early sowing and development of lower nodal tillers is more effective for attaining a high yield in YD than in HH.     

Effects of cultivars of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) on the botanical composition of mixed swards

The effect of five cultivars of Festuca arundinacea on the botanical composition of mixed swards (with Dactylis glomerata and Trifolium repens singly and combined) at two soil fertility levels (moderate fertilizer application and no application) were examined. Shoot and root morphological characteristics of seedlings in each cultivar were also examined under pot conditions.
Although there was little difference in the total biomass of the three mixed swards between cultivars, the cultivars showed significant differences in their relative contribution to total biomass. The relative order of competitive ability between cultivars was maintained over the different soil fertility levels and different species associations.
Of the two yield components of a grass sward, tiller number and tiller size, number of tillers showed a larger response to the presence of neighbour species than mean tiller size, and thus success of F. arundinacea cultivars in mixed swards depended on the extent of reduction of number of tillers caused by the neighbour species of mixtures. The least competitive cultivar had the smallest seeds and shortest roots.     

Physiological and Agronomic Consequences of Rht Genes in Wheat

Summary

Yield of wheat has risen dramatically and world-wide in the last two decades, in part because of the widespread introduction of Rht genes that reduce the length of tillers of wheat. We review the physiological consequences of incorporating reduced height genes into wheat. The Rht₁ or Rht₂ genes modulate the morphology and physiology of wheat in a manner that involves compensation among several physiological processes. For instance, Rht genes decrease leaf area, but photosynthesis per unit area increases, so biomass accumulation is rarely altered. Although Rht genes increase leaf permeability to water vapor, plant water status changes in compensation to minimize differences in water use efficiency. Perhaps due to less competition for carbohydrate during stem elongation, semidwarf wheat has greater harvest index than tall wheat at maturity. Although tall wheat has a greater weight per kernel at maturity, this does not completely compensate for greater grain number per spike in semidwarf wheat. The compensation that leads to greater yield in semidwarf wheat appears to fail in Rht₁Rht₂ or Rht₃ dwarf wheat. Either specific photosynthesis does not completely compensate for decreased area per leaf, or the reduction in plant height retards canopy closure and efficient interception of solar radiation, resulting in lower biomass and yield of dwarf wheat. Drought stress reduces yield and harvest index of dwarf wheat more than tall wheat. Rht genes have insignificant effects on rate of development or winter hardiness. The effects of Rht genes on physiology appear to be similar in winter, spring and durum wheat.     

四川小麦分蘖冗余及理想群体构成研究

为探究四川小麦分蘖冗余及理想群体构成,以5个典型冬小麦品种为材料,在分蘖始期至拔节期每2d剪一次分蘖,设置3个处理[仅保留主茎,剪除所有分蘖(B0);保留主茎和1个大分蘖(B1);保留主茎和2个大分蘖(B2);不剪分蘖(CK)],对成熟期小麦株高、穗部性状和单株产量进行调查分析。结果表明,5个品种间各性状对剪除分蘖的反应表现较一致。单株穗数以B0处理最低(1.00穗),B1、B2和CK处理单株穗数在同一水平(1.96~1.98穗);B0处理下穗粒数(49.5粒)、千粒重(53.2g)、穗长(11.3cm)、有效小穗数(17.7个)较CK显著增加,但株高(86.5cm)和单株产量(2.54g)均最低;B2处理的单株产量(4.27g)介于B1(4.39g)和CK(4.13g)之间,但与二者差异均不显著;B1处理下株高(88.1cm)适中,主茎和分蘖的穗长(11.0、10.6cm)增加,有效小穗数(17.8、16.4个)增多,最终主茎和分蘖的穗粒数(47.4、39.5粒)显著高于B2(44.2、34.7粒)和CK(43.8、36.0粒),主茎和分蘖的千粒重(50.7、52.5g)略高于B2(50.3、50.9g)和CK(49.6、51.3g),穗数、穗粒数、千粒重协调,单株产量(4.39g)最高。因此认为,保留主茎1个分蘖处理消除了冗余分蘖对资源的浪费,减少了内耗,是四川小麦优质、低耗、高产的最佳茎蘖组合。     

Tiller mortality and its relationship to grain yield in spring wheat

Spikeless tillers of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) affect grain yield because of less than optimum effective plant population. This study was conducted to examine the genetic variability for tiller mortality, and its relationship to grain yield in diverse wheat lines. Twenty lines were evaluated in replicated field tests in 4 years at Rampur, Nepal. The characters investigated were maximum number of tiller produced, the number of reproductive tillers, tiller mortality, and grain yield. The lines differed significantly for all characters. The tiller mortality ranged from 7 to 30%. There were substantial effects of environment on all four characters. The entry-by-year interactions were significant for all traits, primarily because of changes in the relative genotypic differences for these traits in the four years. However, certain lines consistently ranked low or high for tiller mortality. There was a significant negative correlation between tiller mortality and grain yield in 3 out of 4 years. There was a positive correlation of highest tiller number with reproductive tiller number and with tiller mortality. Grain yield showed a nonsignificant positive correlation with maximum tiller number. The reproductive tiller number was positively correlated with grain yield. Results of this study indicate that spikeless tillers contribute negatively to grain yield and that genetic variation exists for tiller mortality in spring wheat.     

灌水时期对强筋小麦产量和品质的影响

为了提高小麦的水分利用效率,并为小麦高产优质栽培提供参考,以强筋小麦品种皖麦38为材料,按小麦叶龄指标设计了9个时期的灌水试验,研究了灌水时期对强筋小麦产量和品质的影响。结果表明,皖麦38主穗的籽粒粗蛋白含量随灌水时期的推迟逐渐降低,主要分蘖穗籽粒粗蛋白含量随灌水时期的变化趋势与主穗一致;皖麦38各主要分蘖(1蘖～3蘖)穗的籽粒粗蛋白含量高于主茎穗。春4叶前的灌水处理对穗数的增加有利,春5叶至孕穗期的灌水处理对提高穗粒数有利,孕穗期至灌浆前期的灌水处理更有利于千粒重的提高,灌水时期推迟至灌浆中期会对籽粒产量造成不利影响。籽粒产量随灌水时期推迟呈增加趋势,但灌水推迟至灌浆中期会对籽粒产量造成不利影响。灌浆期进行灌水处理会使沉降值和干、湿面筋含量下降。     

Biomasses in Different Organs of Rice Cultivars Developed During Recent Forty-Seven Years in Jilin Province, China

To understand the changes in yield, harvest index (HI) and biomass of aboveground parts of rice, 33 japonica rice cultivars released from 1958 to 2005 were planted. During the 47 years, the grain yield increased from 9 118.36 to 15 060.1 kg/hm² and HI from 0.46 to 0.55. In the genetic improvement, the total number of tillers per plant decreased, and the biomass per unit area slightly increased at the harvest stage. The increases of yield and HI resulted from the increased biomasses of effective tillers and single stem, and the increase of biomass per stem was related to the increased biomasses of different organs along with the genetic improvement. The stem and sheath biomass at heading and the leaf biomass at 30 days after heading showed the highest increase, up by 75.17% and 49.94%, respectively. The biomasses of leaf and stem-sheath at 10 days after heading, and biomass per stem at 30 days after heading were obviously correlated with the yield. The results indicate that the genetic improvement has resulted in the increase of yield and HI. This increase is correlated with the decrease of total tiller number per plant, and increase of biomasses of effective tillers and single stem. The leaf biomass after heading and the stem and sheath biomass at 10 days after heading can be used as selection criteria for breeding high yielding rice cultivars.     

THE INFLUENCE OF PLANTING DATE ON THE SEED-BEARING CAPACITY OF TILLERS OF PERENNIAL RYEGRASS SPACED PLANTS GROWN FOR SEED

A study was made of the fate of tillers arising at different times in the autumn and the contribution which these tillers made to the final seed yield of single spaced plants of perennial ryegrass planted at different dates for seed production. The flexibility in tiller function and in seed-bearing capacity exhibited within these plants resulted in October-planted material producing as much seed in the following harvest-year as August-planted material, although the latter had twice as many living tillers per plant at harvest. This reproductive versatility has economic importance and may have biological significance in certain ecological conditions.     

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain proteome response to elevated [CO2] varies between genotypes

The impact of rising carbon dioxide concentration ([CO₂]) in the atmosphere on wheat grain protein concentration and proteome was investigated in this study. Wheat genotypes (H45, SB003, SB062 and Yitpi) were grown in the Australian Grains Free-Air CO₂ Enrichment (AGFACE) facility, Horsham, Victoria, Australia under ambient [CO₂] (a[CO₂], 391 μmol mol⁻¹) and elevated [CO₂] (e[CO₂], 550 ± 20 μmol mol⁻¹). Grain yield and grain protein concentration were measured. Global grain proteome comparison was carried out using stable isotope dimethyl labelling followed by liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Grain yield was significantly increased at e[CO₂], whereas protein concentration was significantly decreased and responses varied between genotypes. Proteome-wide analysis revealed that protein composition was also altered under e[CO₂]. Grain protein concentration and composition of SB003 was very responsive to e[CO₂]. Mainly storage proteins were decreased at e[CO₂] and the responses varied between genotypes. These findings suggest that e[CO₂] may have a major impact on grain protein quality and thus bread quality and human and animal nutrition. Further, these findings suggest that [CO₂] insensitive cultivars can be identified for grain quality improvement under changing climate.