Financing Methods for Small-Scale Hardwood Plantations in Queensland, Australia

Under Vision 2020, a target was set in 1997 for trebling the forestry plantation area in Australia by the year 2020. Government subsidies and extension for plantation establishment have largely disappeared, hence forestry expansion is highly dependent on access to private finance. Plantation expansions throughout Australia has occurred predominantly through managed investment schemes, and to a lesser extent by joint venture schemes between landholders and government or private enterprise. Relatively small-scale hardwood plantations have been established, designed to replace the hardwood timber from the native forests that will be protected from further logging after 2024 under the Regional Forestry Agreements. Views on financing methods for forestry expansion in Queensland were investigated through by an email survey of 12 forestry and finance professionals, followed by in-depth personal interviews of the same group of key informants. Issues identified include lack of transparent information, inequitable taxation system between Managed Investment Scheme (MIS) companies and small-scale forest owners, need for further R&D on all aspects of the industry, and design of a strategic alliance model for forestry investors. Participants took the view that adoption of a strategic alliance model would encourage further investment in small-scale forestry and argued that this model could protect the interests of all the stakeholders through reducing investment risk and creating competitive advantage. The potential introduction of a carbon trading scheme also attracted interest from investors, who look for recognisable structures that may alleviate the risk of investing in an industry with which they are unfamiliar. The participants considered that further R&D should be the main focus for government participation in small-scale forestry, although recognizing current difficulties with information sharing.     

A tool for identifying potential Eucalyptus nitens seed orchard sites based on climate and topography

Shy seed production in orchards of Eucalyptus nitens is a major barrier to the deployment of genetic gain in South African plantations. A machine learning method was used to identify optimal sites for the establishment of E. nitens seed orchards within the plantation forestry landscape of the summer rainfall region of South Africa. The ensemble classifier random forests (RF) was used to identify the environmental factors conducive to E. nitens floral bud production, and, based on these, build a predictive model deployable to the plantation forestry landscape for identifying suitable areas for E. nitens seed orchards. The RF model predicted site suitability likelihood for floral bud production with a high level of accuracy (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve = 0.83). Within the climatically optimal range for growing E. nitens, flower bud production was more abundant and consistent on cold slopes, i.e. sites experiencing lower minimum air temperatures during spring and autumn. The model was applied to the commercial plantation forestry landscape for the purpose of indicating sites climatically optimal for floral bud production in E. nitens and the establishment of breeding and seed production orchards of the same species.     

Poor Stem Form as a Potential Limitation to Private Investment in Koa Plantation Forestry in Hawaii

Providing economic incentives to landholders is an effective way of promoting sustainable forest management, conservation and restoration. In Hawaii, the main native hardwood species with commercial value is Acacia koa (koa), but lack of successful examples of koa plantation forestry hinders private investment. Financial models, which have been offered to encourage investment, assume that a particular minimum volume of merchantable wood will be harvested at rotation age. No studies have been done to determine the appropriateness of the assumed volumes for koa plantations. Three 18- to 28-year-old koa plantations were studied to determine butt-log size, crown class and crop tree potential. Estimates of present and future merchantable sawtimber volume were made for each plantation. Results indicate that most existing plantation koa trees fork so close to the ground that they will produce little to no merchantable wood. Projected sawtimber yields from crop trees in these plantations at age 45 years are 10, 15 and 90 m³/ha, which are below the 135 m³/ha yield used in the most recent financial analysis of returns on investment in koa forestry. Relaxing the crop tree criteria gives higher volume yields, but two plantations still fall short of the assumed target yield by 43 and 52%. Given such shortfalls, returns on investment will be less than predicted by the financial analysis. Nevertheless, government offered financial incentives should compensate for lower volume yields and thus promote private investment in koa plantation forestry. Insect herbivory, genetic diversity, and low stand density contribute to poor stem form of plantation koa, and research is needed to quantify the relative importance of and interactions between these factors.     

新西兰林业发展之路

新西兰林业经过50余年的发展．实现了对天然林的保护．木村生产从完全依靠天然林转变为只有1％的锯材来自天然林；一个只有不足400万人口的国家，现在年产木材已达到2100万m^3，木材及木制品出口创汇占全国创汇的12％，成为国民经济的支柱产业，未来25年木材产量将翻番．而且完全来自可持续利用的人工林；这些经验已成为世界林业实现可持续发展的典范。文中分析了新西兰林业成功的经验，希望有助于正在蓬勃发展的中国林业。     

Non-industrial private forest owners’ attitudes towards the operational environment of forestry — a multinominal logit model analysis

The aim of the present study was to relate the attitudes, characteristics and forest management decisions of private forest owners to concepts of strategic management, and by this means, to achieve support for the use of common strategic management approaches in forestry. Non-industrial private forest (NIPF) owners’ forestry business units (BUs) were grouped into four strategic groups (Stars, Cash cows, Wildcats and Dogs), according to the McKinsey's matrix. This grouping was based on the forest owners’ attitudes towards the internal and external operational environments of forestry. Then, the groups were identified by means of a multinominal logit modeling approach that used forest-owner and forest-holding characteristics as explanatory variables. The differences in forestry behavior between the strategic groups were analyzed. The modeling results showed that forest-owner and forest-holding characteristics were in a logical relationship to the basic definitions of the used strategic groups. The behavior of the strategic groups was in accordance with strategies suggested in the tenets of strategic management. The results of this study are supportive of more extensive utilization of common strategic management approaches in forestry. However, the characteristics that make the forest different from other factors of production may require some modifications to be made to these approaches.     

用回归正交设计建立柳杉人工林单木生长模型

将柳杉人工林单株木的胸径、树高、材积 3个因子的生长量作为年龄、地位指数、竞争指数的函数 ,用回归正交设计法建立单木生长模型。误差计算表明 ,该方法是可行的 ,在林业生产上有其实用价值     

林价研究进程探讨和现阶段我国人工林林价求算

以马克思劳动价值论理论为指导,对国内外林价进程进行研究和探讨,对诸多的林价计算方法进行系统比较、分析和归类,针对我国人工林资源特点和林业生产发展需要,基于孔繁文先生的序列林价计算方法,确立以营林生产成本、林地地租、投入资金利息、投入资金利润、营林投入变化、税费为因素,构建了现阶段林价求算公式。通过对实例(杨树、桉树人工林)价格的求算表明,该公式包含的因子全面,各因子取值简便、可行,符合当前林业生产和发展的实际情况,求算出的人工林林价和实际交易值接近,可作为人工林资源价值判别的主要依据,能为林业生产和发展服务。     

国外人工用材林发展比较研究

大力发展人工用材林是世界各国历来采取的缓解木材不足的重要措施。通过对国外人工用材林发展的实证比较研究,全面总结其成功经验及失败的教训,并对我国40年来人工用材林的发展进行了反思,指出发展林业产业带是中国今后的战略选择。     

Research on planting stock and forest regeneration in South Africa

Unlike countries with substantial forest resources, South Africa has a limited area available for forestry development and timber production. This is mainly because of insufficient rainfall for a viable timber production in most of the country, and the priority to utilize land for other purposes such as food production, fundamental community needs and water harvesting. The timber production has steadily increased over the last years, mainly due to breeding strategies and intensive silviculture. The variety of sites and products, as well as the need for improved and product-specific timber properties, force the grower to utilize a multitude of species, hybrids and clones in a fairly uniform operational system. Research-derived plantation forestry in South Africa provides examples of successful biological technology, yet its optimization needs attention. A better integration of components in the `harvesting/processing-nursery-regeneration-tending-harvesting/processing' cycle offers a tremendous challenge for future research.     

加测竖角的双点后方交会三维定位

定位技术在林业工作中起着重要的作用．同时．由于林地的广阔、闭郁及交通不便等特点又给定位工作提出新的要求。从经济性和实用性出发．本文讨论一种加测倾角的双点后方交会三维定位方法。其主要特点是只在待定点上安置1次仪器．对2个已知点观测3个参数，即2个竖直角和1个水平角。与常用的前方交会、后方交会定位方法相比，其观测数据少．同时，解决了林区定位通视条件差给定位工作带来的困难。对相关三维后方交会的数学模型进行了推证，并根据实例进行了误差分析。     

区域林业可持续发展政策的影响要素分析

区域林业发展是现代林业发展的重要形式,也是21世纪中国林业发展战略研究的重要内容。就区域林业的理论、区域划分的流行方法进行了阐述,重点对影响区域林业政策设计的自然、社会、经济与林业资源要素的相关性进行了定性分析,以期为区域林业发展定量化评价指标体系的建构奠定理论基础。     

Adaptation of tropical and subtropical pine plantation forestry to climate change: Realignment of Pinus patula and Pinus tecunumanii genotypes to 2020 planting site climates

Abstract

Pinus patula and Pinus tecunumanii, two pines native to Mexico and Central America, are important plantation species for the forestry sector in the tropics and subtropics. In recent decades, members of the International Tree Conservation & Domestication Program (CAMCORE), North Carolina State University, have established large, multisite provenance trials for these pine species. The data provide valuable information about species and provenance choice for plantation establishment in many regions with different climates. However, since climate is changing rapidly, it may become increasingly difficult to choose the right species and provenance to plant. The aim of this study is to test the suitability of seed material under changing climate of two P. patula varieties (P. patula var. patula and P. patula var. longipedunculata) and two P. tecunumanii ecotypes (highland and lowland). For each variety and ecotype, a site quality model was developed that statistically relates growth to environmental factors and couples the predictions to the average 2020 climate prediction of four general circulation models. Three developed models were significant and robust. Provenances of P. tecunumanii from lowland areas in Central America are expected to be most productive in 2020 because of their promising performance under rather hot and wet climates.     

屏边县林业发展现状及战略规划

当前屏边县林业发展呈现出发展速度快,投资多元化,科技含量高等特点,但尚存在林业产业化程度低,林业发展不平衡,中低产林分布较广,农民收入低,对森林资源依赖性大等问题.藉此,提出速生丰产林建设、特色经济林建设、草果种植产业、中低产林改造、面山绿化和绿色通道建设、林地流转、公益林管护、林业招商引资等多项战略规划.     

澳大利亚的森林经营及其对我国的启示

为满足发展林产工业和保护环境的双重要求, 近20年来澳大利亚显著改进了森林经营, 其核心是在景观层次上考虑木材生产与环境保护的协调问题。具体措施包括分类经营、拟态经营、健康经营、经济经营、多目标经营、社会化经营、认证经营和安全经营等, 从森林的宏观格局配置到经营作业实施, 从管理体制到技术规程, 从人员素质提高到劳动安全, 进行了全面的调整, 走上了具有明显的现代特征的林业可持续发展道路。我国应借鉴其有价值的经验, 坚持以现代林业的思想指导森林经营, 实行差别经营政策, 完善技术体系, 培养有现代经营理念的人员, 加快推进现代林业, 为完成新时期林业又好又快发展的任务奠定基础。     

论中国林木引种驯化策略

林木引种驯化已经成为现代林业的重要组成部分。从现代林木引种驯化概念出发，对林木引种驯化策略进行了探讨分析，对于中国林业的持续发展，在理论和实践上都是十分必要的。     

沾益县德援造林项目及其实施效果评价

沾益县德援造林项目造林1967．72hm^2，造林保存率92．4％，截至2002年底，项目的各项具体目标均已圆满完成，其中生态建设效果尤为突出。项目中采取了优化树种配置，营造混交林；种源控制与壮苗控制；落实政策，维护农民利益；项目资金拨付实行报帐制等措施，项目实施中引进了林业发达国家成功的管理方法和先进的林业技术，提高项目区林业生产技术水平和林业经营管理水平。     

Identification of key soil indicators influencing plantation productivity and sustainability across a national trial series in New Zealand

New Zealand is committed to developing sustainable forest management practices as evidenced through Government involvement in international forestry agreements such as the Montreal Process, and the forestry sector's adoption of forest certification mechanisms. Despite this, there is little quantitative evidence of how plantation forestry affects site quality and long-term site productivity. To address this issue, a nationwide study of site quality was established at 31 key sites covering the range of edaphic and environmental conditions for New Zealand plantation forests. At each location, eight short-term site quality plots were planted at a very high stand density (40,000 stems ha⁻¹) to rapidly identify key soil indicators of growth which may be useful for determining site sustainability. The plots at each site were arranged in a factorial design with the following three factors: species (Pinus radiata D. Don and Cupressus lusitanica Mill.), fertiliser (no fertiliser and nutrients supplied in excess of crop demands) and disturbance (low and high disturbance). These plots were harvested after 4 years and data was used to (i) examine treatment and site effects on volume mean annual increment (MAI) and (ii) identify key soil properties that influence volume MAI for the two species.Volume MAI significantly ranged 7-fold across sites. For the treatments, species accounted for most of the variance in volume MAI, with values for P. radiata significantly exceeding those of C. lusitanica by 95%. Volume MAI was significantly affected by fertilisation which induced gains of 33%. Disturbance did not significantly affect volume MAI. After correction had been made for climatic variables, soil properties that were most strongly related to volume MAI for both species included C:N ratio, total phosphorus (P), and organic P. When soil properties were included in combination, the best predictive models of volume MAI formulated for P. radiata included total P and C:N ratio while the best predictive model for C. lusitanica included C:N ratio and Olsen P. Variation in species sensitivity to total P and C:N ratio is likely to be attributable to their different mycorrhizal associations. For both species, the most important soil physical property influenced by management operations was total porosity. This research suggests that total P, C:N ratio, Olsen P and total porosity should be used as indicator properties for determining sustainability of plantation grown P. radiata and C. lusitanica.     

社会林业促进印度林业与乡村经济综合发展

印度开展社会林业的基本经验是:(1)注重近期经济效益,其主要作法是,选用多用途树种,多种树种混交造林和集约经营;(2)积极引进并充分利用国际援助资金。文章还介绍了印度社会林业的实施效果及存在的问题。     

Policies Affecting Forestry Entrepreneurship

Many demand and supply-side policies impede or foster forestry entrepreneurship. A study was conducted to consolidate existing knowledge on policies influencing forestry entrepreneurship in Finland, Norway, Japan, Australia, the Philippines and the USA, and to draw conclusions on these impeding and fostering factors. From the country studies it was difficult to find common structures on policies affecting forestry entrepreneurship. This is understandable because most policies in forestry are aimed at supporting sustainable forest management, wood production and ecological services of the forests rather than entrepreneurship as such. Despite the high variety of policies applied in the study countries, it can be concluded that strict public control on forests’ use and management potentially impedes forestry entrepreneurship. While these policies assist to correct market failure and to promote sustainability of forest management, they may also result into unnecessary and ineffective regulations that limit the opportunities for forestry entrepreneurship. A common feature promoting the demand for forestry entrepreneurship in some of the countries studied is the strong emphasis on forestry cooperatives, which were important institutions to support small-scale forestry entrepreneurship. In many study countries, different ad hoc programs are implemented to find new economic and entrepreneurial opportunities aside from the current use of wood and forests. Subsidies and tax incentives are commonly applied to reduce risks from making forestry investments or otherwise increase the economic return from timber production.     

分类经营:新西兰林业的实践与借鉴

新西兰70年一贯制的多效林业经营模式, 在创造了人工林奇迹的同时亦带来了林业持续发展的政策危机和效益危机。新西兰林业分类经营近10年的实践初步成功, 是建立在人工林集约经营和政府扶持基础上的, 是以新西兰林产工业的市场培育和出口导向为动力的。比较借鉴:建议从集约经营工业人工林入手, 为我国林业的分类经营奠定坚实的基础;建议从提高林产工业产业素质入手, 为分类经营的实现培育市场。