Development of improved advice for farmers and advisers

Abstract. The MAFF Nitrate Programme has provided policy makers and the agricultural industry with a much improved understanding of soil nitrogen cycling, and the cost-effectiveness of a range of nitrate reduction strategies. This understanding has been disseminated as improved economically-based advice on fertilizer N inputs to arable and grass crops, and information on the N value of livestock manures as affected by timing and method of application. In addition, strategies for reducing nitrate losses have been developed, including the use of over-winter cover crops, the management of cultivations and crop residues, and the conversion of arable land to low-input grassland.
A wide variety of information dissemination methods have been used, including face-to-face discussions, demonstrations, articles in the farming press, booklets aimed at farmers, technical information for advisers and consultants, recommendation reference books and computer-based fertilizer recommendation systems.     

Agricultural nitrogen balance and water quality in the UK

Abstract. Nutrient balance calculations have been advocated as indicators of the risk of nitrate loss from agricultural land. To explore this concept, a spatially distributed UK agricultural nitrogen balance was derived using annually updated statistics. The mean UK N surplus for 1995 was 115 kg N ha^–1, made up of 51 kg ha^–1for arable land, 140 kg ha^–1 for agricultural grassland (excluding rough grazing) and an additional 14 kg N ha^–1for agricultural land from pig and poultry units. Nitrogen surpluses were greater in lowland grassland (mainly in western, wetter areas) than in arable areas. However nitrate concentrations in rivers were generally greater in arable areas. The relationship between N balance and nitrate leaching was very different for grassland and arable systems, and was also sensitive to climate, level of inputs and management practices. Nitrogen surplus was therefore weakly or even negatively correlated with river nitrate concentrations or loads. A positive correlation was found only where the comparison was restricted to grassland-dominated catchments. Nitrogen surplus calculations identified areas of very high livestock densities, which would be associated with increased risk of pollution. However their use in isolation as indicators of N leaching, or of progress towards mitigation, could be misleading especially if comparing areas differing in land use, climate or soil type.     

Utilizing the nitrogen content of organic manures on farms—problems and practical solutions

Abstract. Organic manures contain valuable quantities of nitrogen, phosphate and potash, but many farmers regard them as 'waste materials' rather than as sources of plant nutrients. Utilization of the plant-available nitrogen content is poor at present because of manure management practices which lead to leaching and atmospheric losses. Experiments studying the effect of timing suggest that, in order to decrease nitrate leaching, applications of manures which contain much available nitrogen should not be made during the period September to December on freely draining grassland and arable soils. Spring top dressings of dilute pig or cattle slurries and poultry manures to growing cereal crops are generally more efficient than autumn applications, particularly on freely draining soils. Legislation requiring manures to be applied in an environmentally acceptable manner and the economic need for farmers to realize the nutrient value of organic manures are likely to change the farming industry's perception of manures as 'waste materials'.     

Predicting nitrogen availability and losses following application of organic manures to arable land: MANNER

Abstract. A decision support system to predict the plant availability of nitrogen (N) following organic manure applications to land has been developed, drawing together the latest UK research information on factors affecting manure N availability and losses. The ADAS MAN ure N itrogen E valuation R outine (MANNER) accounts for manure N analysis, ammonia volatilization, nitrate leaching and mineralization of manure organic N. Only a few easily available inputs are required to predict the amount of N volatilized or leached, and the fertilizer N value for the next crop grown. Predictions from MANNER have been evaluated by comparison with independently collected data from a range of experimental studies where pig, cattle and poultry manures were applied to arable crops. Good agreement was found ( r ² 60–79%, P <0.001), confirming that MANNER can provide a reliable estimate of the fertilizer N value of farm manures spread to arable land under a range of conditions.     

泛种养结合视角下北京市养殖业土地承载力评估

种养结合是中国未来农业绿色发展的重要方向。其中,对畜禽粪污的土地承载力的准确估算是关键。针对北京市畜禽粪污消纳的土地没有充分利用及其氮磷需求取值不够准确的问题,该研究根据畜禽养殖数据计算了2018年北京畜禽养殖粪污产生量和氮磷养分资源量,以粮地、菜地、园地、部分林地、草地及未利用土地6种地类作为畜禽粪污的消纳场所,利用统计年鉴和ArcGIS估算了6种类型的土地资源量,根据文献综合分析了各地类单位面积的氮磷养分需求量,进而计算了北京市域内畜禽养殖业的土地承载力。结果表明：2018年北京市畜禽养殖总量为453万头猪当量,畜禽粪污产生总量为380.1万t,氮磷养分资源量分别为2.61万及0.53万t。在有机肥全部替代化肥的情况下,仅以耕地（粮地、菜地）作为畜禽粪污的消纳场所,则全市种植业土地能够承载的最大养殖量为675万头猪当量;若以6种土地类型作为畜禽粪污的消纳场所,则为1 089万头猪当量,是仅以耕地作为消纳场所的1.61倍。若有机肥50%替代化肥,仅以耕地为畜禽粪污消纳场所,土地承载力为337.6万头猪当量,则2018年的养殖规模已经超过耕地承载力。若以6种土地作为消纳场所,其土地承载力为544.5万头猪当量,与现养殖规模相比还有20.1%的养殖潜力。因此,在环境保护的前提下促进养殖业的发展,一是要扩大有机肥对化肥的替代比例,二是要将更多的可作为畜禽粪污消纳的土地类型加以充分利用。     

应用Manure-DNDC模型模拟畜禽养殖氮素污染

畜禽养殖是重要的农业面源氮素污染源头,大量的畜禽粪便施入农田后,会加大农田氮素径流和淋溶损失强度。畜禽养殖废弃物氮素污染过程复杂,涉及到动物自身营养循环以及废弃物通过不同途径进入环境的过程,目前大多通过排放系数法估算畜禽养殖过程产生的氮素污染负荷。该文选用最新版Manure-DNDC模型,以山东小清河流域为例,模拟畜禽养殖及废弃物处理的生物地球化学过程,分析氮素在动物、畜禽粪便、农田之间的迁移转化,探讨该过程中氮素的主要损失途径以及污染物负荷的时空变化特征。模拟结果表明,小清河流域2008年畜禽养殖及粪便处理场所氮素径流损失4.66万t,粪便施入农田后的氮素径流和淋溶损失分别为0.1、0.51万t。     

辽宁省畜禽粪便产污系数测算与环境承载力预警分析

  目的  本文通过对辽宁省畜禽养殖产污系数测算及污染负荷空间分布特征的探讨,为降低畜禽养殖造成的环境污染风险和辽宁省农业的可持续发展提供理论依据。  方法  根据2019年辽宁省畜禽粪便及其主要养分参数的周年监测结果,估算各市区畜禽粪便及其主要污染物的产生系数以及单位耕地面积猪当量负荷量,氮（N）、磷（P）负荷量,并对环境承载力现状进行风险评价。  结果  辽宁省畜禽粪便总产量4.65千万t;产污系数最高的是COD,全氮次之。  结论  辽宁省多数市区畜禽粪便单位耕地面积磷耕地负荷低限额,对环境有尚未构成威胁,且负荷预警值在省内存在空间分布不均的特征。     

天山北麓土地利用与土地退化的时空特征探析

研究天山北麓土地利用/覆被变化过程中的土地退化现象,有利于监测新垦绿洲的环境演变过程。采用1990年、2000年2010年3期遥感影像为基础数据,选取土地利用变化幅度、动态度、土地利用强度指数和LUCC动态变化趋势指数4个指标,并结合转移矩阵,对该地区20 a来的土地利用/覆被变化时空特征及土地退化现象进行综合分析。1990—2010年,研究区耕地和城乡居民工矿用地所占比例持续上升,分别增加了91.05%和60.19%。草地和冰川/永久积雪面积则大幅减少,分别下降了15.45%和28.97%。通过转移矩阵发现,草地和永久冰川退化成荒漠的趋势明显。各土地利用类型中以草地的土地利用变化强度指数最高,达－0.5056%,耕地次之,为0.4091%。研究区土地利用类型间主要转移方向为:草地和冰川/永久积雪转化为荒漠,荒漠和草地转化为耕地,荒漠与草地间相互转化,盐碱地面积得到控制,但向荒漠转化的趋势凸显,永久冰川的消融明显加剧,草地持续退化,研究区生态环境恶化趋势明显。     

Changes in soil carbon and crop yield over 60 years in the Zurich Organic Fertilization Experiment,following land‐use change from grassland to cropland

Changes in land‐use and agricultural management affect soil organic C (SOC) storage and soil fertility. Grassland to cropland conversion is often accompanied by SOC losses. However, fertilization, crop rotation, and crop residue management can offset some SOC losses or even convert arable soils into C sinks. This paper presents the first assessment of changes in SOC stocks and crop yields in a 60‐year field trial, the Zurich Organic Fertilization Experiment A493 (ZOFE) in Switzerland. The experiment comprises 12 treatments with different organic, inorganic and combined fertilization regimes. Since conversion to arable land use in 1949, all treatments have lost SOC at annual rates of 0.10–0.25 t C ha^?1, with estimated mean annual C inputs from organic fertilizers and aboveground and belowground plant residues of 0.6–2.4 t C ha^?1. In all treatments, SOC losses are still in progress, indicating that a new equilibrium has not yet been reached. Crop yields have responded sensitively to advances in plant breeding and in fertilization. However, in ZOFE high yields can only be ensured when mineral fertilizer is applied at rates typical for modern agriculture, with yields of main crops (winter wheat, maize, potatoes, clover‐grass ley) decreasing by 25–50% when manure without additional mineral fertilizer is applied. ZOFE shows that land‐use change from non‐intensively managed grassland to cropland leads to soil C losses of 15–40%, even in rotations including legumes and intercrops, improved agricultural management and organic fertilizer application.     

基于土地消纳粪便能力的畜禽养殖承载力

为了评估北京市平谷区畜禽养殖承载潜力及其污染潜势,该文针对生态涵养区果园占农用地比例大这一特点,参考欧洲标准和相关文献设定了耕地和果园的氮(磷)限量标准,并分析平谷区及其各乡镇耕地和果园对畜禽养殖的承载潜力。结果表明:1)全区农用地平均粪便负荷为16.7 t/hm2,低于30 t/hm2的国家标准,果园对粪便的负荷占农用地总负荷量的66.42%,是最主要的消纳畜禽粪便的载体;2)全区尚有一定的畜禽承载潜力,以氮、磷计分别为6.25万头猪当量和9.48万头猪当量,但各乡镇承载潜力差异显著,兴谷等8个乡镇属于过量承载,具有很高的污染风险,而大华山等9个乡镇仍有较大的承载潜力。研究结果可为平谷区养殖业布局调整、环境污染治理和畜禽粪便资源化利用等决策提供支持。     

Aesthetic preferences of non-farmers and farmers for different land-use types and proportions of ecological compensation areas in the Swiss lowlands

Beyond its traditional function of food production, agricultural land offers public amenities such as the protection of natural resources and landscape scenery. This study investigates the preferences of non-farmers and farmers for nine landscape scenarios in the Swiss lowlands. The nine landscapes were the result of a photo editing process combining three land-use types (arable crops, grassland and a mixture of both) and three proportions of ecological compensation areas (0%, 10% and 30%). The landscape photographs were randomly arranged on one page of a paper-based questionnaire which was sent to a random sample of 4000 Swiss households (non-farmers) and 500 farmers. The respondents (1376 non-farmers and 276 farmers) rated each landscape by attractiveness. Both non-farmers and farmers preferred a mixed land-use type or one dominated by arable crops over one dominated by grassland. Non-farmers’ preference ratings were highly influenced by the proportion of ecological compensation areas (ECAs) in the rated landscape: Non-farmers rated a landscape with a mixed land-use type and 30% ECAs highest, whereas farmers rated a landscape dominated by arable crops and 10% ECAs highest. The results indicate that heterogeneous landscapes (mixed land use, high proportion of ECAs) influence scenic beauty positively. Thus, farming practices and agro-environment schemes such as ECAs can have an impact on the visual attractiveness of a landscape.     

省域农用地猪粪负荷强度时空演变分析

种养循环是解决农业面源污染,促进化肥减量化以及种植业和养殖业可持续发展的重要途径。测算并合理利用农用地粪便承载力是促进区域种养业循环的基础。为了通过种养业循环解决生猪养殖污染问题,本文运用排放系数法测算2007—2016年中国31个省（市、自治区）农用地猪粪负荷强度和承载潜力,并利用ArcGIS空间统计模型分析其时空格局演变特征,运用多元线性回归模型探讨农用地猪粪负荷强度时空分异的主要影响因素。研究结果表明：1）2007—2016年中国农用地猪粪负荷强度总体上并不高,平均值为4.148 t·hm^-2,但省际差异较大。2）负荷强度总体上呈现先增后降特征,其中,青海和西藏呈现持续上升态势,新疆呈现“降-升-升”态势,宁川黔冀4个省域呈现持续降低态势,上海等12个省域呈现“升-升-降”,重庆等6个省市呈“升-降-降”态势,内蒙古等6个省域呈现“降-升-降”态势。负荷强度整体上表现出显著的空间自相关性,自相关性呈现先减弱后增强变动态势。热点区域呈向北部、西部转移趋势。3）城乡收入比、上一年成本利润率、人均猪肉消费量、人口密度、区位、人均农作物面积、河网密度和河流截面水质优良比例等因素对农用地猪粪负荷强度产生了显著影响。其主要通过市场规律、供给-需求关系、环境承载力、养殖规制和政府政策影响负荷强度变化。4）提出根据省域负荷强度热点北移西进的态势以及各地承载潜力,制定生猪养殖业区域规划和负面清单政策,引导种养业在一定区域内实现循环耦合等政策建议。     

Soil nitrate sources and nitrate leaching losses, Slapton, South Devon

Abstract. Concentrations of soil nitrate were measured in areas of different land use within a small drainage basin. From previous work on nitrate losses from subcatchments, soil nitrate levels were expected in the order arable > grassland > woodland. Although differences were detected, they were not consistent and seasonal variations in soil nitrate for the same land use were greater than those between land uses. Seasonal fluctuations in stream nitrate loads were not strongly related to the seasonal differences in soil nitrate levels but were more closely related to stream discharge and antecedent climatic conditions. Losses of nitrate from the catchment seemed to be transport limited and independent of variations in soil nitrate supply; the implication is that water quality control by land use manipulation will only be successful in supply limited situations when leaching losses are sensitive to variations in soil nitrate supply.     

Carbon cycling and sequestration opportunities in temperate grasslands

Abstract. Temperate grasslands account for c. 20% of the land area in Europe. Carbon accumulation in grassland ecosystems occurs mostly below ground and changes in soil organic carbon stocks may result from land use changes (e.g. conversion of arable land to grassland) and grassland management. Grasslands also contribute to the biosphere–atmosphere exchange of non-CO₂ radiatively active trace gases, with fluxes intimately linked to management practices. In this article, we discuss the current knowledge on carbon cycling and carbon sequestration opportunities in temperate grasslands. First, from a simple two-parameter exponential model fitted to literature data, we assess soil organic carbon fluxes resulting from land use change (e.g. between arable and grassland) and from grassland management. Second, we discuss carbon fluxes within the context of farming systems, including crop–grass rotations and farm manure applications. Third, using a grassland ecosystem model (PaSim), we provide estimates of the greenhouse gas balance, in CO₂ equivalents, of pastures for a range of stocking rates and of N fertilizer applications. Finally, we consider carbon sequestration opportunities for France resulting from the restoration of grasslands and from the de-intensification of intensive livestock breeding systems. We emphasize major uncertainties concerning the magnitude and non-linearity of soil carbon stock changes in agricultural grasslands as well as the emissions of N₂O from soil and of CH₄ from grazing livestock.     

Nitrate leaching and residual soil nitrogen supply following outdoor pig farming

Abstract. Large nitrogen (N) inputs to outdoor pig farms in the UK can lead to high nitrate leaching losses and accumulation of surplus N in soil. We investigated the residual effects of three contrasting outdoor pig systems as compared to an arable control on nitrate leaching and soil N supply for subsequent spring cereal crops grown on a sandy loam soil during 1997/98 and 1998/99 harvest seasons. Previously, the pig systems had been stocked for 2 years from October 1995 and were designated current commercial practice (CCP, 25 sows ha^?1 on stubble), improved management practice (IMP, 18 sows ha^?1 on undersown stubble) and best management practice (BMP, 12 sows ha^?1 on established grass). Estimated soil N surpluses by the end of stocking in September 1997 were 576, 398, 265 and 27 kg ha^?1 N for the CCP, IMP, BMP and continuous arable control, respectively. Nitrate leaching losses in the first winter were 235, 198, 137 and 38 kg ha^?1 N from the former CCP, IMP and BMP systems and the arable control, respectively. These losses from the former pig systems were equivalent to 41–52% of the estimated soil N surpluses. Leaching losses were much smaller in the second winter at 21, 14, 23 and 19 kg ha^?1 N, respectively. Cultivation timing had no effect (P>0.05) on leaching losses in year 1, but cultivation in October compared with December increased nitrate leaching by a mean of 14 kg ha^?1 N across all treatments in year 2. Leaching losses over the two winters were correlated (P<0.001) with autumn soil mineral N (SMN) contents. In both seasons, spring SMN, grain yields and N offtakes at harvest were similar (P>0.05) for the three previous pig systems and the arable control, and cultivation timing had no effect (P>0.05) on grain yields and crop N offtake. This systems study has shown that nitrate leaching losses during the first winter after outdoor pig farming can be large, with no residual available N benefits to following cereal crops unless that first winter is much drier than average.     

Nitrate leaching following autumn and winter application of animal manures to grassland

Abstract. Under a UK Government consultation procedure announced in 2001, it was proposed that measures agreed within already designated Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZ 's) would be extended to include a considerably increased area of England, Wales and Scotland. Since existing NVZ 's in the UK have included relatively little grassland, it is important to examine how nitrate losses from grassland areas, especially from animal manures, one of the major potential sources of nitrate loss, can be minimized. Experiments were carried out on freely draining grassland soils at four sites (Devon, Hampshire, Shropshire and N Yorkshire) representative of a wide range of climatic and farming conditions across lowland England, over a four year period, 1990/91 to 1993/94. Slurry was applied to experimental plots over a range of times (including June and then monthly, from September to January) at a target rate of 200 kg N ha^–1. Nitrogen leaching over the four years ranged from 0 to >50% of applied slurry N, with the largest losses occurring following applications in the September to November period. The use of a nitrification inhibitor with slurry applied in November failed to provide consistent reduction in nitrate leaching.
A strategy to reduce the risk of N leaching from manures applied to freely draining grassland soils must take account of the characteristics of the manure, in particular its N content, the application rate and the amount of excess rainfall following application. The experimental results suggest that slurry applications to freely draining grassland, in September, October and November should generally be avoided, the rationale for this being dependent on the amount of excess rainfall subsequent to application. Farmyard manure represents a lower risk and does not justify the restrictions on application timing that appear to be necessary with slurry.     

Residual effects of pig slurry applied to a Mediterranean soil on yield and N uptake of a subsequent wheat crop

Abstract. In areas of intensive pig farming, fresh pig slurry is often applied annually to the same fields. Thus, to avoid nitrogen (N) losses correct fertilizer practice should take account of residual effects of slurry on the following crops. The residual effects of different rates of slurry applied during three years were evaluated in subsequent wheat crops. The experiment was conducted on an irrigated Mediterranean Typic Xerofluvent soil, where plots were left unfertilized or fertilized with 150 kg N ha⁻¹ as ammonium nitrate. Grain yield and grain N uptake increased with slurry rates in both fertilized and unfertilized treatments. The increases in the unfertilized treatments were interpreted as a nitrogen effect of the previous 1996–98 slurry applications. The equivalent mineral N released from the pig slurry was underestimated by two existing decay-series approaches. Although decay-series are useful tools for estimating manure residual effects they should be adjusted for local conditions. A significant positive relationship was detected between apparent N use efficiency of the slurry and the total amount of applied organic N, which was interpreted as a specific residual effect rather than due to the N dose of previously applied pig slurry.     

1999-2009年青海省德令哈市土地利用/覆盖变化特征

以1999年的ETM数据和2009年的矢量数据为数据源,在RS和GIS技术的支持下,分析了青海省德令哈市1999-2009年土地利用/覆盖的时空变化特征,并借助马尔科夫模型,预测了德令哈市未来20 a的土地利用/覆盖演变趋势。结果表明,德令哈市土地利用类型以草地为主。在1999-2009年这10 a中,草地面积减少最多,减少部分主要退化成未利用地;未利用地减少面积仅次于草地,减少部分主要转化成林地;耕地减少面积位居第3,减少部分主要转化成林地;林地增加面积最多,主要来自耕地和未利用地的转化;耕地的空间动态度最大,其次为林地。在未来20 a中,德令哈市耕地和草地的面积会持续减少,林地和建设用地的面积将继续增加。     

Nitrogen losses from outdoor pig farming systems

Abstract. Nitrogen losses via nitrate leaching, ammonia volatilization and nitrous oxide emissions were measured from contrasting outdoor pig farming systems in a two year field study. Four 1‐ha paddocks representing three outdoor pig management systems and an arable control were established on a sandy loam soil in Berkshire, UK. The pig management systems represented: (i) current commercial practice (CCP) ‐ 25 dry sows ha^?1 on arable stubble; (ii) ‘improved’ management practice (IMP) ‐ 18 dry sows ha^?1 on stubble undersown with grass, and (iii) ‘best’ management practice (BMP) 12 dry sows ha^?1 on established grass. Nitrogen (N) inputs in the feed were measured and N offtakes in the pig meat estimated to calculate a nitrogen balance for each system. In the first winter, mean nitrate‐N concentrations in drainage water from the CCP, IMP, BMP and arable paddocks were 28, 25, 8 and 10 mg NO₃ l^?1, respectively. On the BMP system, leaching losses were limited by the grass cover, but this was destroyed by the pigs before the start of the second drainage season. In the second winter, mean concentrations increased to 111, 106 and 105 mg NO₃‐N l^?1 from the CCP, IMP and BMP systems, respectively, compared to only 32 mg NO₃‐N l^?1 on the arable paddock. Ammonia (NH₃) volatilization measurements indicated that losses from outdoor dry sows were in the region of 11 g NH₃‐N sow^?1 day^?1. Urine patches were identified as the major source of nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions, with N₂O‐N losses estimated at less than 1% of the total N excreted. The nitrogen balance calculations indicated that N inputs to all the outdoor pig systems greatly exceeded N offtakes plus N losses, with estimated N surpluses on the CCP, IMP and BMP systems after 2 years of stocking at 576, 398 and 264 kg N ha^?1, respectively, compared with 27 kg N ha^?1 on the arable control. These large N surpluses are likely to exacerbate nitrate leaching losses in following seasons and make a contribution to the N requirement of future crops.     

Parameter selection and testing the soil nitrogen dynamics model SOILN

Abstract. The SOILN model with a crop growth submodel for grass and cereal crops and the associated soil water and heat model SOIL were selected out of a number of similar models to simulate nitrogen cycling in a soil/crop system. The main parameter values required by the model were selected on the basis of a combination of field experiments and literature sources. Experimental data measured on grassland at Dumfries in the West of Scotland and on arable land at Bush Estate near Edinburgh were used to test the model. Simulated biomass yields and nitrogen contents of harvested biomass were in reasonable agreement with measured values for both grass and cereal crops. There were similar trends in accumulated leached nitrate between the simulations and experiments at the sites. Any discrepancy between simulated and measured nitrate leached appeared to correspond to similar discrepancies between simulated and measured water flow. The comparison between simulated and experimental results suggests that the model with the selected parameter values can simulate nitrogen and carbon cycling both in grassland and in arable land, and make convincing predictions about the effects of varying soil, crop, fertilizer and manure management practices. A basic sensitivity analysis carried out on the parameters determining the biological and biochemical processes showed the model predictions of annual N-leaching are relatively insensitive to all but two of the plant parameters. However, the model predictions of annual N-harvested and dry mass production are sensitive to numerous plant parameters.