Development of DRAIN-WARMF model to simulate flow and nitrogen transport in a tile-drained agricultural watershed in Eastern Canada

A new watershed model, DRAIN-WARMF, was developed to simulate the hydrologic processes and the nitrogen fate and transport that occur in small, predominantly subsurface-drained, agricultural watersheds that experience periodic freezing and thawing conditions. In this modeling approach, surface flow is simulated using a watershed scale model, WARMF, and subsurface flow is estimated using a field-scale model for subsurface-drained shallow water table fields, DRAINMOD 5.1. For subsurface flow calculations, the watershed is subdivided into uniform cells, and DRAINMOD is run on each cell with inputs based on the individual hydrologic characteristics of the cell. The coupling results in a distributed parameter model that calculates the total flow at the outlet of a watershed as well as the nitrogen losses. The model was evaluated for the St. Esprit watershed, located approximately 50 km northeast of Montreal. Simulations were carried out from 1994 to 1996; data from 1994 and 1995 was used for model calibration and data from 1996 was used for model validation. The new model was able to adequately simulate the hydrologic response and nitrate losses at the outlet of the watershed. Comparing the observed daily flow/monthly nitrogen with the model's outputs over the validation period returned an R² value of 0.74/0.86 and modeling efficiency of 0.72/0.83. This clearly demonstrates the model's ability to simulate hydrology and nitrogen losses occurring in small agricultural watersheds in cold climates.     

Effects of snowmelt on phosphorus and sediment losses from agricultural watersheds in Eastern Canada

Snowmelt is the most important hydrological event in cold climates. However, snowmelt effects on suspended sediment (SS) and phosphorus (P) loss are poorly documented in Canada. Using two agricultural watersheds in Eastern Canada, this study aimed to quantify SS and P loss during the snowmelt period and to investigate how snowmelt contributes SS and P loss. Water samples were collected from the outlets of the Bras d’Henri watershed (BHW, 2007-2009) and Black Brook watershed (BBW, 2008-2009) and measured for SS and P concentrations. Hydrological parameters (precipitation, snow water equivalent, and runoff discharge), soil frozen status and soil temperature were also measured. Results revealed inter-annual variation of snowmelt conditions and SS and P losses in each watershed. The 2008 snowmelt in BHW and BBW mainly occurred on unfrozen soils, while the 2007 and 2009 snowmelts in BHW and 2009 snowmelt in BBW mainly on frozen soils. In BHW, 2008 snowmelt caused much higher median concentrations of SS, total P (TP), dissolved P (DP) and particulate P (PP) in stream water than 2007 and 2009; ratios of PP fractions in TP were variable with events but the median values were similar, suggesting both DP and PP important contrubutors to TP loss. In BBW, the median concentration of dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) in stream water was greater in 2008 snowmelt than in 2009 snowmelt; PP dominated TP loss. This study also suggests that soil state (i.e. frozen status) and rainfall were the most important factors influencing SS and P losses during snowmelt. Furthermore, snowmelt P export represented more than 20% of the total annual P export in BHW, and more than 12% of the annual DRP export in BBW. Thus, we strongly recommend adopting Best Management Practices (BMPs) that specifically target sediment and P loss during snowmelt.     

Efficiency of controlled drainage and subirrigation in reducing nitrogen losses from agricultural fields

In northeast Italy, a regimen of controlled drainage in winter and subirrigation in summer was tested as a strategy for continuous water table management with the benefits of optimizing water use and reducing unnecessary drainage and nitrogen losses from agricultural fields.To study the feasibility and performance of water table management, an experimental facility was set up in 1996 to reproduce a hypothetical 6-ha agricultural basin with different land drainage systems existing in the region. Four treatments were compared: open ditches with free drainage and no irrigation (O), open ditches with controlled drainage and subirrigation (O-CI), subsurface corrugated drains with free drainage and no irrigation (S), subsurface corrugated drains with controlled drainage and subirrigation (S-CI). As typically in the region free drainage ditches were spaced 30 m apart, and subsurface corrugated drains were spaced 8 m apart.Data were collected from 1997 to 2003 on water table depth, drained volume, nitrate-nitrogen concentration in the drainage water, and nitrate-nitrogen concentration in the groundwater at various depths up to 3 m.Subsurface corrugated drains with free drainage (S) gave the highest measured drainage volume of the four regimes, discharging, on average, more than 50% of annual rainfall, the second-highest concentration of nitrate-nitrogen in the drainage water, and the highest nitrate-nitrogen losses at 236 k ha⁻¹.Open ditches with free drainage (O) showed 18% drainage return of rainfall, relatively low concentration of nitrate-nitrogen in the drainage water, the highest nitrate-nitrogen concentration in the shallow groundwater, and 51 kg ha⁻¹ nitrate-nitrogen losses.Both treatments with controlled drainage and subirrigation (O-CI and S-CI) showed annual rainfall drainage of approximately 10%. O-CI showed the lowest nitrate-nitrogen concentration in the drainage water, and the lowest nitrogen losses (15 kg ha⁻¹). S-CI showed the highest nitrate-nitrogen concentration in the drainage water, and 70 kg ha⁻¹ nitrate-nitrogen losses. Reduced drained volumes resulted from the combined effects of reduced peak flow and reduced number of days with drainage.A linear relationship between daily cumulative nitrate-nitrogen losses and daily cumulative drainage volumes was found, with slopes of 0.16, 0.12, 0.07, and 0.04 kg ha⁻¹ of nitrate-nitrogen lost per mm of drained water in S-CI, S, O, and O-CI respectively.These data suggest that controlled drainage and subirrigation can be applied at farm scale in northeast Italy, with advantages for water conservation.     

Nitrogen and phosphorous concentrations in runoff from a purple soil in an agricultural watershed

Nutrient loss from purple soils has been reported to increase pollution of the Yangtze River. However, few studies have addressed the variations of nutrient concentration in runoff during natural rainstorms in the regions. Nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in runoff waters from a small agricultural watershed, in the purple soil region of southwest China, were investigated for four natural rainstorms occurred in a conventional double cropping system (wheat-corn) and another six rainstorms in a new triple cropping system (wheat-corn-sweet potato). The NO₃⁻ concentrations in runoff for the observed rainstorms generally varied from 1.0 to 3.5 g m⁻³, which were noticeably affected by flow rates. A significant logarithmic correlation between NO₃⁻ concentrations and flow rates for each rainstorm was identified. In contrast, the concentrations of NH₄⁺ and dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) in runoff fluctuated substantially without a noticeable trend for each rainstorm. Positive linear correlation between the concentrations of DRP and sediment for each rainstorm tested was found under the circumstances of double cropping system. In addition, the ratios of NO₃⁻ to NH₄⁺ for the loss amount in 10 rainstorms varied from 1 to 7 for the triple cropping system and 16-29 for the double cropping system. Furthermore, the ratios of the sum of NO₃⁻ and NH₄⁺ to DRP for the loss amount in 10 rainstorms ranged from 12 to 79 depending on the cropping systems. Nitrate nitrogen was proved to be the main form of inorganic nitrogen loss in runoff water in the purple soil region. Compared with the conventional double cropping system, the new triple cropping system tends to cause more NH₄⁺ loss. These findings would help develop the effective erosion control strategies and select a suitable cropping system to reduce potential pollution hazards.     

农业小流域“田-沟”系统氮素时空变化分析

为研究农业小流域尺度上氮素的时空变化趋势,以夏作期内位于南京市溧水县白马镇的典型农业小流域为研究对象,通过野外监测和室内化验分析相结合,探讨了小流域内土壤氮素含量的时空变化,并分析了排水沟道中氮素质量浓度的时空分布特征.结果表明:夏作期小流域内土壤3种形态氮素质量分数时间上存在一定差异性,土壤全氮质量分数呈先增大后减小趋势,土壤硝态氮、铵态氮质量分数均呈总体减小趋势,降幅分别为37.1%,60.9%;小流域土壤全氮质量分数空间上分布趋势为中部较高,四周较低,南部相对于北部质量分数较大.夏作期排水沟道中总氮、硝态氮、铵态氮平均质量浓度依次为3.54,0.81,0.59 mg/L;在排水沟道的迁移过程中,3种形态氮素质量浓度均是沟道出口处大于沟道入口处.     

Intra-annual variability in the contribution of tile drains to basin discharge and phosphorus export in a first-order agricultural catchment

This study examines spatiotemporal variability (event-based, seasonal) in the contribution of drainage tiles within a basin to basin hydrologic discharge and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) and total phosphorus (TP) export over a period of 1 year. Tile discharge was highly variable at both moderate (wet versus dry periods) and smaller (within-event) temporal scales, accounting for 0-90% of basin discharge at any given time. An estimated 42% of basin annual discharge originated from drainage tiles, the majority of which occurred during the winter and spring months. Concentrations of SRP and TP in drainage tile effluent were also highly variable in space and time (1-2850 μg SRP L⁻¹, 5-8275 μg TP L⁻¹). Higher concentrations of SRP and TP were linked to fields receiving manure compared to fields receiving inorganic fertilizers. SRP export from tiles accounted for 118% of basin SRP export on average, although their contribution to basin SRP export ranged from 4 to 344% on 32 discrete dates during which all tiles in the basin were sampled for hydrochemistry. On the same 32 dates, tiles accounted for an average of 43% of basin TP export, although this ranged from 0 to 200%. Management options such as tile plugs and optimizing the timing and application rates of fertilizer should be explored to minimize nutrient export from tiles.     

Yield and soil system changes from conservation tillage in dryland farming: A case study from North Eastern Tanzania

Yield levels in smallholder farming systems in semi-arid sub-Saharan Africa are generally low. Water shortage in the root zone during critical crop development stages is a fundamental constraining factor. While there is ample evidence to show that conservation tillage can promote soil health, it has recently been suggested that the main benefit in semi-arid farming systems may in fact be an in situ water harvesting effect. In this paper we present the result from an on-farm conservation tillage experiment (combining ripping with mulch and manure application) that was carried out in North Eastern Tanzania from 2005 to 2008. Special attention was given to the effects of the tested treatment on the capacity of the soil to retain moisture. The tested conservation treatment only had a clear yield increasing effect during one of the six experimental seasons (maize grain yields increased by 41%, and biomass by 65%), and this was a season that received exceptional amounts of rainfall (549 mm). While the other seasons provided mixed results, there seemed to be an increasing yield gap between the conservation tillage treatment and the control towards the end of the experiment, and cumulatively the yield increased with 17%. Regarding soil system changes, small but significant effects on chemical and microbiological properties, but not on physical properties, were observed. This raises questions about the suggested water harvesting effect and its potential to contribute to stabilized yield levels under semi-arid conditions. We conclude that, at least in a shorter time perspective, the tested type of conservation tillage seems to boost productivity during already good seasons, rather than stabilize harvests during poor rainfall seasons. Highlighting the challenges involved in upgrading these farming systems, we discuss the potential contribution of conservation tillage towards improved water availability in the crop root zone in a longer term perspective.     

Salinity dynamics of wetland ditches receiving drainage from irrigated agricultural land in arid and semi-arid regions

Agricultural drainage ditches are considered as wetland ecosystems when they possess the characteristic hydrology, soil and vegetation of wetlands. In arid and semi-arid regions, wetlands receiving agricultural drainage have to cope with the conservative nature of salts leached from soils. Excessive accumulation of salts in wetlands may threaten the ecological functions of the system, thus endanger the sustainability of the drainage disposal system and the productivity of the farmlands. Based on the salt and water balance in a farmland drainage and wetland disposal system in arid regions, this paper presents a thorough investigation on salinity dynamics of wetland ditches receiving agricultural drainage. Theoretical equations were derived to describe salinity changes in water and soils of wetlands under both equilibrium and pre-equilibrium conditions; a case example was then used to display model predictions of salinity variations over time under different salinity management goals. The example wetlands are de facto drainage ditches that possess wetland characteristics, and the ditch to farmland area ratio is 9.1%. The results showed that salt as a conservative substance will eventually concentrate in the ditches to a very high level if there is little outflow discharge; but the salt accumulation process may develop over a relatively long time, which opens a time window for management practice, such as flushing the salts when fresh water is available. By assuming different threshold salinity levels in the ditches, the proposed analytical models were used to predict time intervals when fresh water recharge is needed to bring down the salinity level in the ditches. For the study area under current drainage practice, the predicted outflow to inflow ratio for salinity was 58.2% and reached an equilibrium level of 9.60 g L⁻¹ in the ditches; salinity levels in the ditches reached threshold values of 5, 7 and 9 g L⁻¹, in about 1, 4 and 12 years, respectively. Salinity analysis showed that the salt retention capacity of the ditch soil is limited, the soil salinity varied according to the ditch water; salt removal through plant uptake and harvest was insignificant. This study indicates that although salt concentration in wetlands receiving agricultural drainage may eventually build up to a critical level, timely recharge with fresh water may bring down salt content in the wetlands and sustain adequate environmental and ecological functions of such a drainage disposal system in arid and semi-arid regions.     

我国农业绿色发展现状、成效及问题研究

我国农业绿色发展是实现农业可持续发展的重要路径,对于促进生态文明建设和保障人民健康具有重要意义。本文采用归纳演绎法、案例分析法等方法,探讨了我国农业绿色发展的现状、成效、问题以及创新路径。首先,从概念、发展历程、流派及各地农业绿色发展等方面,介绍了我国农业绿色发展的现状;其次,总结了政策法律体系健全、财政支持力度加大和化学品投入减少等方面的成效,分析了农业绿色发展面临的主要问题,包括地域发展不均衡、绿色农产品价格优势不显著、人才紧缺和流失以及市场体系不健全等;最后,提出完善农业绿色体系、建立农业绿色数字体系、促进互联网农业发展及推进供给侧结构性改革以促进农民合作社发展等创新路径,以期为相关政策的制定提供参考,推动我国农业绿色发展。     

Developing greenhouse gas marginal abatement cost curves for agricultural emissions from crops and soils in the UK

Emissions of greenhouse gases from agriculture are likely to come under increasing scrutiny as governments around the world develop proposals for large cuts in greenhouse gas emissions. Yet while there is a range of technically feasible measures for reducing agricultural emissions, it is not immediately apparent which options deliver the most economically efficient reductions in greenhouse gases. This paper develops a marginal abatement cost curve (MACC) for crop and soil measures applicable in UK agriculture. A range of specific abatement measures are screened for their cost-effectiveness and mitigation potential in the field. An efficient subset is identified with reference to a cost per tonne threshold of ?£100/tCO₂e. Results indicate that the abatement potential by 2022 is likely to be between 1.628 and 10.164 MtCO₂e y⁻¹ depending on the policies implemented, with a central estimate of 5.196 MtCO₂e y⁻¹. This represents 11.5% of the 2005 UK agricultural GHG emissions.     

平原河网地区稻麦轮作农田排水与氮素流失特征研究

长江下游稻麦轮作区农田排水是区域面源污染的主要来源,明确农田排水与氮素流失特征对于区域农业生产可持续发展与生态环境保护具有重要意义。现有稻麦轮作农田排水与氮素流失研究中,一般采用农田测筒观测地表径流与深层渗漏量来估算农田氮素流失量,这与农田土壤水分与氮素主要通过侧向径流进入农田排水系统的实际情况存在偏差。本文基于4年的大田监测数据,运用田间水文水质模型DRAINMOD-NⅡ,模拟研究了不同气象条件下稻麦轮作农田排水与氮素流失规律。结果表明,稻麦轮作周年内,由排水造成的氮素流失量多年平均值为28.4 kg/hm²,占施肥量的6.0%,其中大部分集中在稻季,平均为25.6 kg/hm²,麦季氮素流失量仅为2.8 kg/hm²。与现有文献报道值相比,本文模拟得出的排水总量高35.4%,氮素流失总量则低44.6%;差异主要来自麦作期,文献报道平均值(31.8 kg/hm²)是本文的11倍,估算方法不同可能是造成这一差异大的主要原因。结合降雨规律分析发现,农田排水量和氮素流失量与降雨变化关系显著(决定系数R<...     

The effect of parameter uncertainty on whole-field nitrogen recommendations from nitrogen-rich strips and ramped strips in winter wheat

This paper estimates the relative profitability of using optical reflectance-based measures to predict crop needs for topdress nitrogen application to hard red winter wheat (Triticum aestivum). The data are from nitrogen yield response experiments where midseason optical reflectance data were recorded. Both nitrogen-rich strips and ramped strips are considered. Unlike past research, optimal nitrogen recommendations are calculated with and without accounting for parameter uncertainty. The expected profit-maximizing strategy is to follow the historical extension advice of applying 90 kg ha⁻¹ preplant nitrogen using anhydrous ammonia. This strategy is more profitable than the best optical reflectance-based prediction system by $18.74 ha⁻¹. When anhydrous ammonia is unavailable and preplant nitrogen must be applied as dry urea, the extension recommendation and the optical reflectance-based predictors are not significantly different. Ramped strips are no better than nitrogen-rich strips. Accounting for estimation uncertainty in the parameters increases expected profit by about $10 ha⁻¹.     

Comparison of nitrogen and irrigation strategies in tomato using CROPGRO model. A case study from Southern Italy

The CROPGRO simulation model was calibrated for processing tomato in Southern Italy with a 2002 data set and validated with three independent data sets with acceptable results. Subsequently this model was combined with 53 years of local historical weather data and it was used as a research tool to evaluate the benefits, risks and costs of 23 different interactive irrigation and/or N-management scenarios. Irrigation water was applied (i) on reported dates with 3 and 5 days intervals and application rates of 15 and 25 mm or (ii) with automatic irrigation initiated at residual soil moisture levels in the upper 30 cm of the soil profile of 25, 50, or 75%. Three amount levels of N application (100, 200 and 300 kg ha⁻¹ as ammonium nitrate) were considered. A simple economic analysis, including tomato marketable yield and price, irrigation and nitrogen cost and other fixed production costs, was used to estimate expected net return for each management scenario.     

Comparative evaluation of phosphorus losses from subsurface and naturally drained agricultural fields in the Pike River watershed of Quebec, Canada

Phosphorus (P) is the limiting nutrient responsible for the development of algal blooms in freshwater bodies, adversely impacting the water quality of downstream lakes and rivers. Since agriculture is a major non-point source of P in southern Quebec, this study was carried out to investigate P transport under subsurface and naturally drained agricultural fields with two common soil types (clay loam and sandy loam). Monitoring stations were installed at four sites (A, B, C and D) in the Pike River watershed of southern Quebec. Sites A-B had subsurface drainage whereas sites C-D were naturally drained. In addition, sites A-C had clay loam soils whereas sites B-D had sandy loam soils. Analysis of data acquired over two hydrologic years (2004-2006) revealed that site A discharged 1.8 times more water than site B, 4 times more than site C and 3 times more than site D. The presence of subsurface drainage in sandy loam soils had a significant beneficial effect in minimizing surface runoff and total phosphorus (TP) losses from the field, but the contrary was observed in clay loam soils. This was attributed to the finding that P speciation as particulate phosphorus (PP) and dissolved phosphorus (DP) remained relatively independent of the hydrologic transport pathway, and was a strong function of soil texture. While 80% of TP occurred as PP at both clay loam sites, only 20% occurred as PP at both sandy loam sites. Moreover, P transport pathways in artificially drained soils were greatly influenced by the prevailing preferential and macropore flow conditions.     

Simulation of nitrogen leaching from a fertigated crop rotation in a Mediterranean climate using the EU-Rotate_N and Hydrus-2D models

Two different modeling approaches were used to simulate the N leached during an intensively fertigated crop rotation: a recently developed crop-based simulation model (EU-Rotate_N) and a widely recognized solute transport model (Hydrus-2D). Model performance was evaluated using data from an experiment where four N fertigation levels were applied to a bell pepper-cauliflower-Swiss chard rotation in a sandy loam soil. All the input data were obtained from measurements, transfer functions or were included in the model databases. Model runs were without specific site calibration. The use of soil input parameters based on the same pedotransfer functions in both models resulted in a very similar simulation of soil water content in spite of the different nature of the approaches. Good correlations were found between the simulated water draining below 60 cm and that calculated by water balance. Accuracy of the predicted nitrate nitrogen (NO₃-N) contents in the 0-90 cm soil profile was acceptable with both models, with values of the mean absolute error (MAE) below the average standard deviation of the observations. The uptake of nitrate was better simulated with EU-Rotate_N where specific crop N demand algorithms are involved. In the simulations with Hydrus-2D the evapotranspiration demand was a limiting factor for N uptake, resulting in an increasing underestimation of uptake with decreasing N fertilizer rates. Simulated N leaching below a depth of 60 cm was higher with Hydrus-2D due to a higher nitrate concentration in percolated water. Comparison of the observed and predicted yield response to N applications with EU-Rotate_N demonstrated that the best fertigation strategy could be identified and the risk of nitrate leaching quantified with this model. The results showed that for a successful solving of the problem studied, Hydrus-2D probably would need a more complex calibration, and that the EU-Rotate_N model can provide acceptable predictions by adjusting basic parameters for the growing conditions. Further research with other crops and soil types will allow up-scaling the quantification of N leaching from a field level to regional and national levels, identifying best management strategies in relation to N use from an environmental and economic perspective.     

Field evaluation of Gee Passive Capillary Lysimeters for monitoring drainage in non-gravelly and gravelly alluvial soils: A useful tool to estimate nitrogen leaching from agriculture

The development of accurate methodologies for monitoring drainage and evaluating nitrogen leaching from agricultural land is an absolute necessity, particularly considering the growing problem of nitrogen pollution of groundwater throughout the world. In this context, the Gee Passive Capillary Lysimeter appears to be an innovative tool that allows direct and continuous measurement of drainage and enables drainage water to be sampled for chemical analysis. The main objective of this study was to evaluate how the Gee Passive Capillary Lysimeter works in alluvial soils. The study was conducted at two agricultural field stations: Site 1 (central Spain), with a non-gravelly soil, and Site 2 (north of Spain), with a gravelly soil. An installation procedure that leaves part of the soil profile undisturbed was selected for the soil without gravel, whereas a procedure that may alter the soil physical properties was used for the gravelly soil. The experiment was carried out over two consecutive crop cycles at both field stations. Soil water balances were obtained through two different methods: a direct method based on direct measurements of drainage using the Gee Passive Capillary Lysimeter, and an indirect method based on the calculation of daily crop evapotranspiration. A statistical comparison of results obtained by the two methods showed no significant differences in estimates of drainage or crop evapotranspiration from both the non-gravelly and the gravelly soil. The efficiency of leachate collection with the Gee Passive Capillary Lysimeter in the non-gravelly soil was 101 ± 1% (mean ± standard deviation), while in the gravelly soil, it was 142 ± 52%. Drainage and nitrogen leaching below the root zone were determined to be primarily triggered by excessive irrigation. This study helps to validate the use of the Gee Passive Capillary Lysimeter in gravelly and non-gravelly alluvial soils under irrigated agriculture.     

The effect of situational variability in climate and soil, choice of animal type and N fertilisation level on nitrogen leaching from pastoral farming systems around Lake Taupo, New Zealand

Agricultural systems with grazing animals are increasingly under scrutiny for their contribution to quality degradation of waterways and water bodies. Soil type, climate, animal type and nitrogen (N) fertilisation are contributors to the variation in N that is leached through the soil profile into ground and surface water. It is difficult to explore the effect of these factors using experimentation only and modelling is proposed as an alternative. An agro-ecosystem model, EcoMod, was used to quantify the pastoral ecosystem responses to situational variability in climate and soil, choice of animal type and N fertilisation level within the Lake Taupo region of New Zealand. Factorial combinations of soil type (Oruanui and Waipahihi), climate (low, moderate and high rainfall), animal type (sheep, beef and dairy) and N fertilisation level (0 or 60 kg N/ha/yr) were simulated. High rainfall climates also had colder temperatures, grew less pasture and carried fewer animals overall which lead to less dung and urinary N returned. Therefore, even though a higher proportion of N returned ultimately leached at the higher rainfall sites, the total N leached did not differ greatly between sites. Weather variation between years had a marked influence on N leaching within a site, due to the timing and magnitude of rainfall events. In this region, for these two highly permeable soil types, N applied as fertiliser had a high propensity to leach, either after being taken up by plants, grazed and returned to the soil as dung and urine, or due to direct flow through the soil profile. Soil type had a considerable effect on N leaching risk, the timing of N leaching and mean pasture production. Nitrogen leaching was greatest from beef cattle, followed by dairy and sheep with the level of leaching related to urine deposition patterns for each animal type and due to the amount of N returned to the soil as excreta. Simulation results indicate that sheep farming systems with limited fertiliser N inputs will reduce N leaching from farms in the Lake Taupo catchment.