防风固沙灌木花棒沙柳根系生物力学特性

为了揭示花棒和沙柳的根系生物力学特性,该文选取毛乌苏沙地5 a生人工种植花棒、沙柳的根系为研究对象,通过室内单根拉伸试验,得到沙柳(直径0.78~7.44 mm)的平均最大拉力、抗拉强度和杨氏模量分别比花棒(直径0.91~6.46 mm)高42.07%、44.52%和90.00%。花棒、沙柳单根根系的最大拉力随直径增大以幂函数增大,抗拉强度和杨氏模量随直径增大以幂函数减小。花棒与沙柳单根根系的平均抗拉强度能达到Ⅰ级钢筋(370MPa)的6.86%和9.91%,对土壤有一定的加筋作用。采用自制根系拉力测试系统进行野外原位整株根系垂直拉拔试验,得到花棒(地径17.65~42.68 mm)和沙柳(地径20.35~48.07 mm)的整株根系最大垂直拉拔力为(1.71±0.16)k N和(1.18±0.16)k N,花棒比沙柳高出44.92%。花棒整株根系的生物力学特性要优于沙柳,整体固沙能力更强。该研究可为根系固土作用理论研究和防风固沙树种的筛选提供参考。     

拉拔作用下护坡植物香根草根系的力学性能

植物根系受拔时存在拔断破坏和拔出破坏两种破坏形式,而关于根系倾角对根系受拔力学性能和破坏形式的影响尚不清楚。该研究以香根草作为研究对象,分析不同直径（0.20～1.40 mm）根系单根抗拉性能。并设置不同受拔倾角（0°、15°、30°、45°、60°、75°和90°）的根系进行单根抗拔试验,分析不同生长倾角下单根抗拔性能及其破坏形式,以明确植物根系生长倾角对根系受拔时力学性能和破坏形式的影响。结果表明：香根草根系的最大抗拉力和最大抗拔力随根系直径呈幂函数关系增加,而抗拉强度和抗拔强度则随根系直径呈幂函数关系减小。在受拔倾角为0°、15°、30°、45°、60°、75°和90°时,根系受拔力分别为0.48～2.71、0.59～4.16、0.79～4.08、0.95～4.47、1.86～5.39、2.20～6.39和2.95～7.46 N。随着根系受拔倾角的增加,根系最大抗拔力和抗拔强度增加。植物根系破坏形式受到根系直径和受拔倾角影响,根系直径越小越可能出现拔断破坏,而根系受拔倾角越大,受拔发生拔断破坏的根系数目越多,被拔断的临界根径越大。研究结果表明根系直径和受拔倾角明显影响根系力学性能及拔破时的破坏形式,这对深入理解根系固土机理具有重要意义。     

华北护坡阔叶树种根系抗拉性能与其微观结构的关系

为了研究乔木单根抗拉性能与其微观结构和纤维的关系,为筛选合适的水土保持、边坡防护树种提供理论基础,对白桦、榆树、蒙古栎3种北方常见阔叶树种的根系进行了抗拉力、抗拉强度、根系解剖结构以及根系分子离析等一系列的试验,并运用多元回归的方法对两者之间的关系进行定量的分析。试验结果表明:3种阔叶树种的根系显微结构基本和其树材相同;根系显微结构中木纤维所占根系横截面积的百分比、韧皮部所占根系横截面积的百分比、木纤维的尺寸因素影响单根的抗拉特性;其中木纤维所占根系横截面积的百分比对单根抗拉力的影响因子最大且呈正相关,韧皮部所占根系横截面积的百分比对单根抗拉强度的影响因子最大且呈正相关;同时单根抗拉特性与木纤维的长度、木纤维的长宽比以及壁腔比均成正相关,但影响因子小于木纤维所占根系横截面积的百分比、韧皮部所占根系横截面积的百分比;3个树种中榆树在相同直径下的各项测定指标都高于白桦和蒙古栎,表现出单根具有更好的抗拉特性。研究结果可为固土护坡阔叶树种的选择提供参考。     

Relationship between tensile properties and microstructures of three different broadleaf tree roots in North China

为了研究乔木单根抗拉性能与其微观结构和纤维的关系,为筛选合适的水土保持、边坡防护树种提供理论基础,对白桦、榆树、蒙古栎3种北方常见阔叶树种的根系进行了抗拉力、抗拉强度、根系解剖结构以及根系分子离析等一系列的试验,并运用多元回归的方法对两者之间的关系进行定量的分析。试验结果表明：3种阔叶树种的根系显微结构基本和其树材相同;根系显微结构中木纤维所占根系横截面积的百分比、韧皮部所占根系横截面积的百分比、木纤维的尺寸因素影响单根的抗拉特性;其中木纤维所占根系横截面积的百分比对单根抗拉力的影响因子最大且呈正相关,韧皮部所占根系横截面积的百分比对单根抗拉强度的影响因子最大且呈正相关;同时单根抗拉特性与木纤维的长度、木纤维的长宽比以及壁腔比均成正相关,但影响因子小于木纤维所占根系横截面积的百分比、韧皮部所占根系横截面积的百分比;3个树种中榆树在相同直径下的各项测定指标都高于白桦和蒙古栎,表现出单根具有更好的抗拉特性。研究结果可为固土护坡阔叶树种的选择提供参考。     

油松根系的固土力学机制

为深入了解林木根系固土力学机制,探讨不同条件下的根系固土作用,对油松根系进行了拉伸、拔出和根土复合体三轴试验。结果表明,油松根系的抗拉力随根系直径的增大成幂函数关系增加,而抗拉强度随直径的增大无明显变化规律;根系受拉的应力—应变曲线特征参数不同,以二次多项式模型拟合效果最好,均为单峰曲线,具有弹塑性材料的特征,极限应力和极限延伸率的大小与根系直径无明显的关系;根土界面最大摩擦力随着根径的增加呈现出近似线性的增长趋势。根径越大,根系越深,根土界面摩擦力就越大,进而对土壤的摩擦锚固作用就越强。相同根径时,根土复合体的抗剪强度随围压的增加而增大。相同围压下,根土复合体的抗剪强度随着根径的增加而增大。相同的根径和围压下,垂直埋根方式的根土复合体抗剪效果好于水平埋根方式。     

浅层滑坡生物治理中的乔木根系抗拉实验研究

通过对野外选取的合欢根系的抗拉试验，及在合欢林地的抗拉拔实验，研究了根系的最大抗拉强度和抗拉拔强度。结果表明，根系最大抗拉强度与根系直径成指数函数关系，最大抗拉力与根系直径成正相关关系，根系抗拉拔力可以和根系直径、根长、土壤容重建立回归方程，从而可以求得根系与周围土体之间的静摩擦系数。     

黄土区3种优势灌木根土复合体的抗剪强度研究

黄土区水土流失严重,生态护坡是比较推崇的防护手段,特别是灌木具有发达的根系,对含根土体有较为明显的抗剪增强作用,因此,比较自然条件下区域适生优势灌木的根土复合体抗剪强度,对于合理选择固土护坡植物具有重要意义。以黄土区常见的优势乡土灌木达乌里胡枝子(Lespedeza davurica)、中国沙棘(Hippophae rhamnoides)和狼牙刺(Sophora viciifolia)为研究对象,野外采用三维土柱挖取灌木的根系,进行不同直径单根抗拉试验和根土复合体的剪切试验。结果表明:(1)达乌里胡枝子、沙棘和狼牙刺的根系集中分布于0—40 cm土层中,它们的根长密度、根表面积密度和生物量密度随着土层深度的增加表现出整体递减的趋势。(2)达乌里胡枝子、沙棘和狼牙刺根系的抗拉力(Tensile Resistance,TR)与抗拉强度(Tensile Strength,TS)都表现为关于直径(D)的幂函数(aD^b),其中抗拉力与根径呈正相关(b>1),而抗拉强度与根径呈负相关(b<1)。(3)不同灌木根土复合体的抗剪强度在地下分布是不同的,在根际范围内随土层加深,达乌里胡枝子根土复合体的抗剪强度表现出先增加后减少而后增加又减少的趋势,最大抗剪强度的土层是20—30 cm和50—70 cm,沙棘和狼牙刺根土复合体的抗剪强度表现出先增加后减少的趋势,最大抗剪强度的土层分别是30—50 cm,0—20 cm。说明灌木的细根可以更好地起到固土护坡的作用,建议在黄土区优先选择达乌里胡枝子和沙棘作为护坡植物,从而为生态护坡提供一些参考。     

狗牙根根系分布特征及其抗拉强度试验研究

以狗牙根为研究对象,就狗牙根根系在土壤中的分布及其抗拉强度进行了初步研究。结果表明,根系密度及根系重量随土层深度(0—40 cm)的增加而减少,其规律均服从指数函数关系分布;根系抗拉力随直径增大而增大,其分布规律均可用二次函数进行拟合;根系的平均抗拉强度为39.349 MPa,约为Ⅰ级钢筋抗拉强度的17%,能产生显著的根系"加筋作用",抗拉强度随直径增大而减小,其规律服从指数函数关系分布。根据狗牙根根系分布特征及抗拉强度特性,其固土护坡作用较大。     

冀西北地区白桦根系-土壤界面摩擦性能

林木根系通过摩擦锚固作用实现对土体的固持。以冀西北地区白桦的根系为对象,通过垂直拉拔试验,探究根径、根系土中埋深、土壤含水率、海拔、根系生长方向等因素对根系-土壤界面摩擦性能的影响。结果表明：根土摩擦力随着埋深、根径的增大而增大,同根系直径满足幂函数关系,决定系数大于0.82,拟合良好;土壤含水率由11.85%增大至17.85%,根土摩擦力先增后减,最大拔出力对应土壤含水率范围在13.85%～17.85%之间;不同海拔位置、不同生长方向的根系,其根土界面摩擦力也有所差异。冗余分析结果表明,根系直径和海拔对根土摩擦力贡献接近且较高。研究结果对冀西北地区林木树种的选择和生态环境的保护具有重要的意义。     

华北落叶松根系抗拉力学特性

华北落叶松作为水土保持先锋植物之一,其根系的力学抗拉特性是维持边坡稳定的一个重要因素.为探究落叶松根系的基本抗拉力学性质,选取不同根长、直径以及去皮与否的华北落叶松根系,以不同的拉伸速率进行室内单根拉伸试验.结果表明:根长100 mm的带皮根系以10 mm/min的速率拉伸时,其根系的抗拉强度与直径无明显的相关性,而其他的条件下,根系的抗拉强度随直径的增加而减小,且呈逆函数关系;华北落叶松根系的应力-应变曲线为单峰曲线,无明显颈缩,呈弹塑性材料特征;根长、去皮与否都对根系的抗拉强度有显著的影响,而拉伸速率对根系抗拉强度的影响不明显.研究结果可为进一步分析华北落叶松根系与土壤之间的相互作用机制、建立边坡稳定模型提供基础数据.     

尖萼金丝桃根系对边坡土体抗剪强度的影响

[目的]探讨根系单根抗拉拔强度对边坡土体抗剪强度的影响,定量分析根系对边坡土体抗剪强度的增强作用,为评价植物根系增强边坡土体抗剪切性能提供依据。[方法]以2 a生尖萼金丝桃根系及其组成的根土复合体为研究对象,分别进行室内单根拉拔试验和根土复合体剪切试验,获得根系的抗拉强度及根土复合体试样黏聚力值;在此基础上分析根系抗拉强度与根土复合体黏聚力值之间的关系。[结果]尖萼金丝桃根系抗拉强度与根系直径存在负向幂函数关系,相关性系数均大于0.92;根系拉拔位移、抗拉拔力均与根系直径呈正相关关系,拉拔位移与抗拉拔力之间也表现为显著正相关关系;抗拉强度与根系直径、拉拔位移、抗拉拔力两两之间均呈负相关关系;根土复合体的黏聚力相较于无根素土均有不同程度的增长,增幅达17.25%～94.76%,黏聚力、黏聚力增长率均与根土面积比、根土体积比呈正相关关系。[结论]尖萼金丝桃根系拉拔特征对边坡土体抗剪强度产生显著的影响,边坡土体抗剪切性能评价指标与根系拉拔特征变化密切相关。     

利用径向生长修复算法检测玉米根系表型

针对根系图像中的断根易导致根系表型信息难以精确获取的问题,该研究提出一种根系径向生长修复算法,并基于此进行不同抗性玉米种子根系表型对比研究。首先,采用自适应对比度增强、直方图灰度查找、椒盐去噪等对采集的根系图像进行预处理,从复杂背景中分离出根系图像;再通过YOLO-V3检测模型进行根系图像中主根根尖识别;最后,自根尖开始进行径向生长,通过分叉点主根提取策略、端点自适应修复策略实现主根图像修复,并提取主根和侧根表型信息。将普通、抗旱、抗涝、抗盐4种不同抗性的玉米种子种植于槽型扁平容器中培养14 d后取出,冲洗得到完整根系并进行图像采集。采用径向生长修复算法进行根系修复后提取根系长度和直径与根系图像修复前相比,根系长度和直径的提取精度分别由83.6%和84.4%提高至97.4%和94.8%,径向生长修复算法提取精度优于区域生长算法,适用于不同胁迫环境下玉米根系表型参数提取。在干旱环境和盐腌环境下,径向生长修复算法精度提升更明显。结果表明,该研究所提出的根系径向生长修复算法可有效提高根系图像表型信息精度,为根系表型快速提取提供参考。     

布根方式及根系径级对根土复合体抗剪性能的影响

以沙地柏根系及其土壤所构成的根土复合体为研究对象,通过根土复合体的室内直剪试验,研究了沙地柏根的不同径级、不同布置方式对根土复合体抗剪性能的影响。结果表明,在不同法向应力作用下,有根系存在的根土复合体抗剪强度均明显高于无根扰动土的抗剪强度。在根土复合体中,垂直存在的根系对提高土体抗剪强度的贡献大于水平存在的根系。在所含根数一致的情况下,根土复合体的抗剪强度并不与所含根系径级的大小成正比,而是随着根系径级的增大呈现递增—回落—反弹的趋势。该试验的研究可为今后沙地柏水土保持树种的栽植提供一定的技术参数及理论支撑。     

Pedologic and geomorphic impacts of a tornado blowdown event in a mixed pine-hardwood forest

Biomechanical effects of trees on soils and surface processes may be extensive in forest environments. Two blowdown sites caused by a November 2005 tornado in the Ouachita National Forest, Arkansas allowed a case study examination of bioturbation associated with a specific forest blowdown event, as well as detailed examination of relationships between tree root systems, soils, and underlying bedrock. The sites occur within mixed shortleaf pine and hardwood forests. More than 95% of trees in the severe blowdown areas were either uprooted or suffered trunk break, with uprooting more common than breakage. Within the most heavily damaged areas all uprooted trees were pines, while all trees left standing were hardwoods. Root wads of uprooted trees had a mean surface area of about 3 m² and volume of about 2 m³, though individual sizes were quite variable. Nearly 4% of the ground surface area was affected by uprootings, with a soil volume equivalent to a disturbance of the entire surface area to a depth of 2.4 cm. Tree size (as measured by diameter at breast height) was significantly related to the area and volume of root wads (R² = 0.55, 0.71, respectively), with volume of uprooted soil varying as diameter to the ~ 3 power, suggesting that the timing of blowdown events relative to tree age or growth stage significantly influences the area of disturbance and the mass and volume of material involved. In 93% of cases the roots of the uprooted trees contacted or penetrated the underlying bedrock, and in all those cases bedrock was quarried by uprooting. Only 11% of the tree throws showed evidence of general lateral root turning at the soil–bedrock interface; in most cases roots penetrated bedrock along joints. The propensity for tree roots to penetrate bedrock joints, facilitate weathering, and excavate bedrock during uprooting supports the idea that tree roots play a predominant role in locally deepening soils.     

沙地柏根系径级对根土复合体抗剪强度的影响

采用应变控制式直剪仪,通过对含不同沙地柏根系径级的扰动土进行室内直剪试验,分析研究根土复合体的抗剪性能。结果表明沙地柏根系的加入,增强了土体的抗剪强度,且根土复合体的抗剪强度符合库伦定律;当所含根系径级小于某个极限值时,根土复合体的抗剪强度随着径级的增大而增大,当超过这一极限值,则随着所含根系径级的增大,其抗剪强度逐渐减小,随着根系径级的逐步增大,由于根自身抵抗土体剪切变形能力增强,使得根土复合体的抗剪强度值开始回升;一定竖向荷载下,根土截面比△过小,对复合体抗剪性能影响微弱;根土截面比过大,根系与土壤胶结力降低,对抗剪强度产生负影响,因此,存在一个最佳根土截面比,在此比值附近,根土复合体的抗剪强度达到最大。本研究可为沙地柏在作为水土保持树种栽植方面提供理论依据。     

寒旱环境灌木根系增强边坡土体抗剪强度特征

为深入研究根系与剪切面呈不同夹角α条件下,边坡土体中根系对土体抗剪强度的影响,以及定量分析评价植物根系对边坡土体抗剪强度的增强作用,该项研究以生长期为150 d的柠条锦鸡儿、霸王根系及其组成的柠条锦鸡儿根-土复合体、霸王根-土复合体为研究对象分别进行室内单根拉伸试验和复合体剪切试验。通过对2灌木根系进行单根拉伸试验,得到2种灌木根系单根的抗拉强度,并对根系与剪切面夹角α分别为45°、60°、75°、90°等4种条件下的根-土复合体进行剪切试验,得到4种α角度条件下的根-土复合体试样抗剪强度;在此基础上,分析探讨了单根抗拉强度与根-土复合体试样粘聚力值之间的关系。结果表明:柠条锦鸡儿根系的单根抗拉强度较霸王根系的单根抗拉强度略高;柠条锦鸡儿根-土复合体、霸王根-土复合体试样,在4种不同α角度条件下的黏聚力均显著大于素土黏聚力;当α角由45°增大至90°时,2种灌木根-土复合体的黏聚力值呈逐渐增大的趋势,且黏聚力的增长率亦表现出一致性变化规律,即2种灌木根-土复合体试样的黏聚力的增长率均随着α角的增大而呈增大趋势;根-土复合体黏聚力值与单根抗拉强度存在正相关关系。由上述复合体黏聚力值的变化规律反映出,试验区2种灌木根系对边坡土体抗剪强度具有显著增强作用,同时亦反映出随根系的单根抗拉强度的增大,根系对土体粘聚力值的增强效果相对愈加显著,且随根系与剪切面间夹角不同,根系增强边坡土体抗剪强度贡献具有不同的变化规律,即表现在根系与剪切面之间的夹角趋于垂直时,根系具有相对最大限度地增强土体抗剪强度的作用。该研究结果为定量评价植物根系增强边坡土体抗剪强度的贡献,提供了试验方面的数据支撑,这为进一步深入探讨植物根系增强边坡土体抗剪强机理提供参考。     

Pedologic and geomorphic impacts of a tornado blowdown event in a mixed pine-hardwood forest

Biomechanical effects of trees on soils and surface processes may be extensive in forest environments. Two blowdown sites caused by a November 2005 tornado in the Ouachita National Forest, Arkansas allowed a case study examination of bioturbation associated with a specific forest blowdown event, as well as detailed examination of relationships between tree root systems, soils, and underlying bedrock. The sites occur within mixed shortleaf pine and hardwood forests. More than 95% of trees in the severe blowdown areas were either uprooted or suffered trunk break, with uprooting more common than breakage. Within the most heavily damaged areas all uprooted trees were pines, while all trees left standing were hardwoods. Root wads of uprooted trees had a mean surface area of about 3 m² and volume of about 2 m³, though individual sizes were quite variable. Nearly 4% of the ground surface area was affected by uprootings, with a soil volume equivalent to a disturbance of the entire surface area to a depth of 2.4 cm. Tree size (as measured by diameter at breast height) was significantly related to the area and volume of root wads (R² = 0.55, 0.71, respectively), with volume of uprooted soil varying as diameter to the ~ 3 power, suggesting that the timing of blowdown events relative to tree age or growth stage significantly influences the area of disturbance and the mass and volume of material involved. In 93% of cases the roots of the uprooted trees contacted or penetrated the underlying bedrock, and in all those cases bedrock was quarried by uprooting. Only 11% of the tree throws showed evidence of general lateral root turning at the soil–bedrock interface; in most cases roots penetrated bedrock along joints. The propensity for tree roots to penetrate bedrock joints, facilitate weathering, and excavate bedrock during uprooting supports the idea that tree roots play a predominant role in locally deepening soils.     

Temporal and spatial variability in root reinforcement of streambanks: Accounting for soil shear strength and moisture

Riparian vegetation exerts a number of mechanical and hydrologic controls on bank stability, which can affect the delivery of sediment to channels. Estimates of root reinforcement of soils have commonly been attained using perpendicular root models that simply sum root tensile strengths and consider these as an add-on factor to soil strength. A major limitation of such perpendicular models is that tensile strength and resistance is wrongly considered to be independent of soil type and moisture, and therefore variations according to these bank properties are omitted in conventional models. In reality, during mass failure of a streambank, some roots break, and some roots are pulled out of the soil intact; the relative proportions of roots that break or pull out are determined by a combination of soil moisture and shear strength. In this paper an equation to predict the frictional resistance of root–soil bonds was tested against field data collected at Long Creek, MS, under two soil moisture conditions. The root pullout equations were then included in the root-reinforcement model, RipRoot, and bank stability model runs for Goodwin Creek, MS, were carried out in order to examine the effects of spatial and temporal variations in soil shear strength and rooting density, on streambank factor of safety. Model results showed that at smaller root diameters breaking forces exceeded pullout forces, but at larger root diameters pullout forces exceed breaking forces. The threshold diameter between root pullout and root breaking varied with soil shear strength, with increasing soil shear strength leading to a greater proportion of roots failing by breaking instead of pullout. Root-reinforcement estimates were shown to reflect changes in soil shear strength, for example, brought about by variations in soil matric suction. Resulting Factor of safety (F_S) values for the bank during the period modeled ranged from 1.36 to 1.74 with 1000 grass roots/m², compared to a range of 0.97 to 1.37 for the non-vegetated bank. Root reinforcement was shown to increase bank stability under the entire range of soil moisture conditions modeled. However, the magnitude of root reinforcement varied in both space and time as determined by soil shear strength and soil moisture.     

基于两种计算模型的油松与元宝枫根系固土效能分析

[目的]定量分析北方常见植物(油松、元宝枫)根系对提高土壤抗剪能力的作用,为更好地评价植物根系固土效能提供理论基础。[方法]选取不同根系面积比(RAR)的油松(Pinus tabulaeformis)根土复合体、元宝枫(Acer truncatum)根土复合体及素土分别进行了不同垂直压力下的直剪试验,得出了油松根土复合体、元宝枫根土复合体及素土的抗剪强度增量。并通过根系的拉伸试验测定了植物根系的抗拉强度,同时使用Wu的根土复合体模型和Pollen的纤维束模型对抗剪强度增量进行模拟并与实际测定的抗剪强度增量进行对比分析。[结果](1)根系主要通过增强土壤的黏聚力来增强土壤的抗剪切强度;(2)植物根系抗拉强度、拔出强度与根系直径都符合幂函数关系,抗拉强度和拔出强度大小存在阈值,根系大于2mm时,根系拔出强度小于根系抗拉强度,小于2mm时则反之;(3)Wu的根土复合体模型高估植物根系固土效果值平均为26.81%,而纤维束模型对根系提高土壤抗剪强度则平均高估9.82%。[结论]相对于Wu模型,纤维束模型对土壤的固土效果的计算更为准确。     

Der Einfluß von Bodenart,Durchlüftung des Bodens,N-Ernährung und Rhizosphärenflora auf die Morphologie des seminalen Wurzelsystems von Mais

Influence of soil type, soil aeration, nitrogen supply and rhizosphere flora on the morphology of the seminal root system of maize The influence of the soil type (quartz sand – humous loamy sandy soil), soil aeration, nitrogen supply and rhizosphere flora on the morphology of the seminal root system of maize plants grown in pot culture was investigated. The morphological parameters of number, length, diameter and root hair formation (both length and density) of the main and the lateral roots were determined in addition to the total root length and number and the lateral root density. 1. The biomass production of the shoot and root system was nearly identical in both soils. The total root length growth, however, was enhanced in the sandy soil due to the stimulated formation of first order lateral roots. This increase was correlated with a decrease in the mean diameter and root hair length of the main and lateral roots. 2. A decreased O₂-supply to the soil resulted in a drastic reduction of root biomass, which was correlated, however, with a (relative) increase in total root length (due to the stimulation of the length growth of the first order lateral roots). The root hair length, on the other hand, was reduced under O₂-deficiency. 3. Reduced N-supply resulted in a decrease of the shoot/root-ratio with both substrates which could be ascribed to the enhanced formation and length of the first order lateral roots. 4. The presence of soil microorganisms in quartz sand culture resulted in a reduction of shoot biomass. In comparison with the sterile control culture the total length of the main roots was retarded, the main and lateral roots were more slender and root hair formation was reduced. 5. The experimental results show that the lateral root system demonstrates a significantly greater plasticity than does the main root system.