Influence of harvest time and frequency on light interception and biomass yield of festulolium and tall fescue cultivated on a peatland

In this study, we report efficiencies of light capture and biomass yield of festulolium and tall fescue cultivated on a riparian fen in Denmark under different harvesting managements. Green biomass targeted for biogas production was harvested either as two cuts (2C) or three cuts (3C) in a year. Three different timings of the first cut in the 2C systems were included as early (2C-early), middle (2C-mid) and late (2C-late) cuts corresponding to pre-heading, inflorescence emergence and flowering stages, respectively. The fraction of intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (f_PAR) was derived from the canopy reflectance measured on 61 dates throughout a year, and cumulative interception of PAR (IPAR) and radiation use efficiency (RUE) was calculated. The dynamics of f_PAR and biomass accumulations was similar for both crops before the first cuts in all managements. Festulolium f_PAR in 2C-early and 2C-mid managements declined faster than in 2C-late and 3C managements in the second growth period and thus growing period IPAR of 2C-early and 2C-mid declined by 8% as compared to 3C management where IPAR was 925 MJ m⁻². Annual festulolium dry matter (DM) yield in 2C-early and 2C-mid managements (average 14.1 Mg DM ha⁻¹) decreased by 22% compared to 3C management (18.2 Mg DM ha⁻¹). The highest and the lowest RUE of festulolium were observed in 3C and 2C-mid managements as 1.97 and 1.59 g MJ⁻¹, respectively. For tall fescue f_PAR declined rather slowly in the second growing period in all 2C managements, which contributed to similar IPAR (908–919 MJ m⁻²), total biomass yield (16.4–18.8 Mg DM ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) and RUE (1.80–2.07 g MJ⁻¹) for all managements. Whereas both crops were highly productive under both 3C management and 2C management with first harvest after flowering (i.e., 2C-late), the 2C-late strategy is recommended as the least intensive of the two management systems.     

Radiation use efficiency,chemical composition,and methane yield of biogas crops under rainfed and irrigated conditions

For biomethane production, the cup plant (Silphium perfoliatum L.) is considered a promising alternative substrate to silage maize (Zea mays L.) due to its high biomass potential and associated ecological and environmental benefits. It has also been suggested to grow cup plant on less productive soils because of its presumed drought tolerance, but robust information on the impact of water shortage on biomass growth and substrate quality of cup plant is rare. Therefore, this study assesses the effects of soil water availability on the chemical composition and specific methane yield (SMY) of cup plant. Furthermore above-ground dry matter yield (DMY) was analysed as a function of intercepted photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) and radiation use efficiency (RUE). Data were collected in a two-year field experiment under rainfed and irrigated conditions with cup plant, maize, and lucerne-grass (Medicago sativa L., Festuca pratensis Huds., Phleum pratense L.). The cup plant revealed a slight decrease of −6% in the SMY in response to water shortage (less than 50% of plant available water capacity). The average SMY of cup plant [306 l (kg volatile solids (VS))⁻¹] was lower than that of maize [362 l (kg VS)⁻¹] and lucerne-grass [334 l (kg VS)⁻¹]. The mean drought-related reduction of the methane hectare yield (MHY) was significantly greater for cup plant (−40%) than for maize (−17%) and lucerne-grass (−13%). The DMY reduction in rainfed cup plant was mainly attributed to a more severe decrease in RUE (−29%) than for maize (−16%) and lucerne-grass (−12%). Under water stress, the mean cup plant RUE (1.3 g MJ⁻¹) was significantly lower than that of maize (2.9 g MJ⁻¹) and lucerne-grass (1.4 g MJ⁻¹). Compared to RUE, the reduced PAR interception was less meaningful for DMY in rainfed crops. Hence, the cup plant is not suitable for growing on drought prone lands due to its high water demand required to produce reasonably high MHYs.     

Yield,water use and radiation use efficiencies of kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) under reduced water and nitrogen soil availability in a semi-arid Mediterranean area

Kenaf is a warm-season species that recently has been proved to be a good source of biomass for cellulose pulp for the paper industry in Mediterranean countries, where the use of hemp is problematic for legal reasons. A two-year research program aiming at studying the effects of different water regimes and nitrogen fertilization levels, upon plant growth, leaf area index, biomass accumulation, water and radiation use efficiency, was carried out on kenaf under a typically semi-arid Mediterranean climate of South Italy. In cv. Tainung 2, four different water regimes (I₀ = no irrigation, I₂₅, I₅₀ and I₁₀₀ = 25, 50 and 100% ETc restoration, respectively) and three nitrogen levels (N₀ = no nitrogen, N₇₅ and N₁₅₀ = 75 and 150 kg ha⁻¹ of N, respectively) were studied. The amount of water applied strongly affected plant growth (in terms of LAI, plant height and biomass) and final total and stem dry yield, which significantly increased from I₀ to I₁₀₀. Nitrogen did not exert any beneficial effect upon dry yield. Radiation Use Efficiency (RUE), calculated in the second year only, was the highest (1.95 g DM MJ⁻¹) in fully irrigated treatment (I₁₀₀) and the lowest (0.86 g DM MJ⁻¹) in the dry control.Water use efficiency (WUE) was rather similar among water regimes, whilst irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) progressively increased with the decrease of total volume of water distributed to the crop by irrigation, from 3.47 to 12.45 kg m⁻³ in 2004 and from 4.27 to 7.72 kg m⁻³ in 2005. The results obtained from this research demonstrate that in semi-arid areas of South Italy, irrigation at a reduced rate (50% ETc restoration) may be advantageous, since it allowed a 42–45% irrigation water saving, when compared to the fully irrigation treatment, against a 23% (in 2004) and 36% (in 2005) yield reduction, and a still good efficiency (near that potential) in transforming the solar radiation in dry biomass was maintained (RUE = 1.76 g DM MJ⁻¹, against 1.95 g DM MJ⁻¹ in fully irrigated treatment).     

Screening chickpea for adaptation to water stress: Associations between yield and crop growth rate

Robust associations between yield and crop growth rate in a species-specific critical developmental window have been demonstrated in many crops. In this study we focus on genotype-driven variation in crop growth rate and its association with chickpea yield under drought. We measured crop growth rate using Normalised Difference Vegetative Index (NDVI) in 20 diverse chickpea lines, after calibration of NDVI against biomass accounting for morphological differences between Kabuli and Desi types. Crops were grown in eight environments resulting from the combination of seasons, sowing dates and water supply, returning a yield range from 152 to 366 g m⁻². For both sources of variation – environment and genotype – yield correlated with crop growth rate in the window 300 °Cd before flowering to 200 °Cd after flowering. In the range of crop growth rate from 0.07 to 0.91 g m⁻² °Cd⁻¹, the relationship was linear with zero intercept, as with other indeterminate grain legumes. Genotype-driven associations between yield and crop growth rate were stronger under water stress than under favourable conditions. Despite this general trend, lines were identified with high crop growth rate in both favourable and stress conditions. We demonstrate that calibrated NDVI is a rapid, inexpensive screening tool to capture a physiologically meaningful link between yield and crop growth rate in chickpea.     

Energy efficiency of potato production practices for bioethanol feedstock in northern Japan

In 2007–2009, field experiments were conducted to identify agronomic practices affording the lowest energy inputs (i.e. total energy inputs from fuels and other agricultural material inputs required to produce 1 L of ethanol) under potato-based bioethanol feedstock production in northern Japan. On a hectare basis, for a standard 4.4 m⁻² planting density, conventional practices [two inter-row cultivations (weeding and preparation for ridging) and final ridging] yielded an estimate of 4.85 kL ha⁻¹, representing an energy input of 5.86 MJ L⁻¹. The energy input savings arising from the lesser fuel consumption associated with fewer tractor operations under no- and low-ridge cropping practices were outweighed by a reduction in ethanol yields, resulting in slightly greater energy inputs (6.09 ± 0.65 and 5.89 ± 0.30 MJ L⁻¹, respectively). Similarly, poorer ethanol yields outweighed the reduction in energy inputs arising from lessened seed potato production-associated energy inputs under lowered planting densities of 3.8 and 3.3 m⁻², resulting in ethanol yield-based energy inputs of 5.98 ± 0.33 and 6.01 ± 0.41 MJ L⁻¹, respectively. Omitting fungicide applications significantly lowered biocide-related energy inputs, but yielded 20 and 63% lower ethanol yields for Phytophthora-resistant and -susceptible genotypes, respectively, substantially worsening energy efficiencies (6.24 ± 0.42 and 12.2 ± 6.3 MJ L⁻¹). In northern Japan, use of high starch-yielding genotypes served as the only way to increase ethanol yields and improve energy efficiency for potatoes used in bioethanol feedstock production. A 29% greater ethanol yield (6.26 ± 0.46 kL ha⁻¹) and 21% better energy efficiency (4.63 ± 0.23 MJ L⁻¹) were achieved by replacing the standard potato cultivar with a high starch-yielding variety. The yield-based energy inputs with a high starch-yielding potato variety were significantly lower than those with conventional sugar beet in northern Japan (5.82 MJ L⁻¹).     

Evaluating the accuracy of VEMAP daily weather data for application in crop simulations on a regional scale

Weather plays a critical role in eco-environmental and agricultural systems. Limited availability of meteorological records often constrains the applications of simulation models and related decision support tools. The Vegetation/Ecosystem Modeling and Analysis Project (VEMAP) provides daily weather variables on a 0.5 latitude–longitude grid across the conterminous USA. Daily weather data from the VEMAP (1961–1990) for the state of Georgia were compared with data from 52 individual ground stations of the National Weather Service Cooperative Observer Program (COOP). Additionally, simulated crop grain yields of soybean (Glycine max) were compared using the two data sources. Averaged daily maximum and minimum temperatures (Tmax and Tmin, respectively), solar radiation (SRAD), and precipitation (PPT) differed by 0.2 °C, ?0.2 °C, 1.7 MJ m^?2 d^?1, and 0 mm, respectively. Mean absolute errors (MAEs) for Tmax, Tmin, SRAD, and PPT were 4.2 °C, 4.4 °C, 4.4 MJ m^?2 d^?1, and 6.1 mm, respectively, and root mean squared errors (RMSEs) for Tmax, Tmin, SRAD, and PPT were 5.5 °C, 5.9 °C, 5.8 MJ m^?2 d^?1, and 13.6 mm, respectively. Temperature differences were lowest during summer months. Simulations of grain yield using the two data sources were strongly correlated (r = 0.68, p < 0.01). The MAE of grain yield was 552 kg ha^?1. The RMSE of grain yield was 714 kg ha^?1. Hybrid analyses indicated that the variation of simulated yield was mainly associated with the differences in rainfall. The results showed that the VEMAP daily weather data were able to be adequately applied to crop growth simulation at spatial and temporal scales, especially for long-term climate change research. Overall, the VEMAP weather data appears to be a promising source for crop growth modeling concerned with scale to 0.5° coordinate grid.     

Effects of input management and crop diversity on non-renewable energy use efficiency of cropping systems in the Canadian Prairie

Although producers’ prime objective may be to increase net returns, many are also interested in conserving and enhancing the quality the soil, water and air resources through adopting more environmentally friendly production practices. This study compared non-renewable energy inputs, energy output, and energy use efficiency of nine dryland cropping systems comprised of a factorial combination of three methods of input management [high (HIGH), i.e., conventional tillage plus full recommended rates of fertilizer and pesticides; reduced (RED), i.e., conservation tillage plus reduced rates of fertilizer and pesticides; and organic (ORG), i.e., conventional tillage plus N-fixing legumes and non-chemical means of weed and pest control]; and three crop rotation systems with varying levels of cropping diversity [a fallow-based rotation with low crop diversity (LOW); a diversified rotation using annual cereal, oilseed and pulse grains (DAG); and a diversified rotation using annual grains and perennial forages (DAP)]. The study was conducted over the 1996–2007 period on a Dark Brown Chernozemic soil (Typic Boroll) in the Canadian Prairies. As expected, total direct plus indirect energy input was the highest for the HIGH and RED input treatments (3773 MJ ha^?1 year^?1), and 50% less for ORG management. Most of the energy savings came from the non-use of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides in the ORG management treatments. Further, total energy use was the highest for the DAG treatments (3572 MJ ha^?1 year^?1), and similar but about 18% lower for the DAP and LOW crop diversity treatments compared to DAG. Thus, overall, the HIGH/DAG and RED/DAG systems had the highest energy requirements (4409 MJ ha^?1 year^?1) and ORG/DAP had the lowest (1806 MJ ha^?1 year^?1). Energy output (calorimetric energy content) was typically the highest for the HIGH input treatments (26,541 MJ ha^?1 year^?1), was about 4% less with RED, and 37% less with ORG management. The latter reflected the lower crop yields obtained with organic management. Similarly, energy output was the highest for the DAP treatments (25,008 MJ ha^?1 year^?1), about 5% less for DAG, and 20% less for the LOW crop diversity treatments. The higher energy output with the DAP treatments largely reflected that the entire harvested biomass of the forage crops was included in energy output, while for grain crops only the seed was included. The straw and crop residues from annual crops were returned to the land to protect the soil from erosion and to maintain soil organic matter as this is the recommended practice in this semi-arid region. In contrast to energy output and to net energy produced, energy use efficiency (measured as yield of grain plus forage produced per unit of energy input or as energy output/energy input ratio) was the highest for the ORG input treatments (497 kg of harvested production GJ^?1 of energy input, and an energy output/energy input ratio of 8.8). We obtained lower, but generally similar energy use efficiency for the HIGH and RED input treatments (392 kg GJ^?1 and ratio of 7.1). Thus, overall, ORG/DAP was the most energy efficient cropping system, while RED/LOW and RED/DAG generally ranked the lowest in energy use efficiency. Our findings support the current movement of producers toward ORG management as a means of reducing the reliance on non-renewable energy inputs and improving overall energy use efficiency of their cropping systems. Our results also suggest that moving away from traditional monoculture cereal rotations that employ frequent summer fallowing, toward extended and diversified crop rotations that use reduced tillage methods, although resulting in an increase in energy output, will not significantly reduce the overall reliance on non-renewable energy inputs, nor enhance energy use efficiency, unless perennial legume forages and/or legume grain crops are included in the cropping mix.     

Radiation interception and radiation use efficiency of potato affected by different N fertigation and irrigation regimes

Three years of field experiments were carried out to explore the response of potato dry matter production, accumulated intercepted photosynthetic active radiation (Aipar) and radiation use efficiency (RUE) to five N levels providing 0, 60, 100, 140 and 180 kg N ha⁻¹ and three drip irrigation strategies, which were full, deficit and none irrigation. Results showed that, irrespective of years, dry matter production and Aipar were increased by prolonged N fertigation, even though N fertigation was carried out from middle to late growing season. The highest total and tuber dry matter and accumulated radiation interception in all three years were obtained when potatoes were provided with 180 kg N ha⁻¹. RUE on the other hand was not affected by N regime. Thus, increases in total dry matter production with increasing N levels were essentially caused by higher Aipar. The strongest response to N fertilization occurred when most N was applied early in the growing season and the latest N fertilization should be applied no later than 41–50 days after emergence. Deficit irrigation, which received ca.70% of irrigation applied to full irrigation, did not reduce radiation interception and radiation use efficiency.     

Crop and cattle production responses to tillage and cover crop management in an integrated crop–livestock system in the southeastern USA

Integrated crop–livestock systems can help achieve greater environmental quality from disparate crop and livestock systems by recycling nutrients and taking advantage of synergies between systems. We investigated crop and animal production responses in integrated crop–livestock systems with two types of winter cover cropping (legume-derived N and inorganic fertilizer N), two types of tillage [conventional disk (CT) and no tillage (NT)], and whether cover crops were grazed by cow/calf pairs or not. The 13-ha field study was a modification of a previous factorial experiment with four replications on Ultisols in Georgia, USA. Recurring summer drought severely limited corn and soybean production during all three years. Type of cover crop had little influence and grazing of cover crops had minor influence on crop production characteristics. Cattle gain from grazing of winter cover crops added a stable component to production. No-tillage management had large positive effects on corn grain (95 vs. 252 g m⁻² under CT and NT, respectively) and stover (305 vs. 385 g m⁻²) production, as well as on soybean grain (147 vs. 219 g m⁻²) and stover (253 vs. 375 g m⁻²) production, but little overall effect on winter wheat grain (292 g m⁻²) and stover (401 g m⁻²) production. Our results suggest that robust, diversified crop–livestock systems can be developed for impoverished soils of the southeastern USA, especially when managed under no tillage to control environmental quality and improve resistance of crops to drought.     

Propensity for seed-mediated gene flow from potato crops and potential consequences for the coexistence of GM and non-GM potato systems

Potato is a critical crop to European growers, both economically and agronomically as a break crop in the standard cereal rotation. As studies investigating the agronomic performance and environmental impact of disease resistant, GM potatoes come to an end across several sites in Europe, past discussions on achieving the effective coexistence of GM and equivalent non-GM crops have too often focussed on the purported risk of excessive pollen-mediated gene flow. Dependent on the crop in question, the impact of seed loss pre- and/or post-harvest presents a greater challenge to securing efficient coexistence practises. To examine this issue for potato, a total of 51 fields that had been commercially cultivated with potatoes were surveyed in two separate cohorts for post-harvest tuber loss and/or volunteer emergence. Across 17 fields studied, the average post-harvest tuber loss was recorded at 141,758 ± 911 tubers ha⁻¹, with volunteer establishment in the following crop ranging from 400 ± 59 ha⁻¹ to 55,698 ± 47 ha⁻¹. In parallel, by surveying a separate cohort of 34 commercial fields an average of 30,789 ± 2658 volunteer ha⁻¹ was recorded in the subsequent cereal crop, with a repeat survey made after an additional year indicating an 87.2% reduction in this mean number of volunteers across the 34 fields (P < 0.001). Of the additional variables studied only location (P < 0.001), herbicide application (P = 0.037) and potato variety used (P = 0.045) significantly influenced volunteer proliferation. Volunteer fecundity was confirmed with upto 3 tubers produced per 1st generation volunteer, with tuber yield from the 2nd generation volunteers reduced significantly (P < 0.001). Assessments of the tuber lots from these 2nd generation volunteers confirmed their ability to sprout post-dormancy, therefore, indicating the potential for 3rd generation volunteers to emerge. Combined, the datasets confirm the potential for significant seed-mediated gene flow from commercial potato systems; indicating that the regulated 0.9% coexistence threshold would in all probability be compromised if GM potatoes were grown in rotations of 1:4 years or less, in the absence of a comprehensive tuber loss and/or volunteer management system.     

Yams (Dioscorea spp.) plant size hierarchy and yield variability: Emergence time is critical

Yam crops (Dioscorea spp.) present a very high and unexplained interplant variability which hinders attempts at intensification. This paper aims to characterize the plant-to-plant variability in yield and to identify its underlying causes for the two major yam species (Dioscorea alata and Dioscorea rotundata). Four field experiments were carried out between 2006 and 2009 in Benin. Yams were grown using a traditional cropping method (i.e. in mounds at 0.7 plants m⁻²) without biotic or abiotic stresses. In order to test interplant competition, a low density treatment (0.08 plants m⁻²) was included for D. alata in the 2006 experiment. Throughout four years of experimentation, yields varied from 12 Mg ha⁻¹ to 21 Mg ha⁻¹. Both yam species presented a high interplant coefficient of variation (CV) for tuber yield (42–71%). The unbiased Gini coefficient (G′) was used to measure how steep a hierarchy is in an absolute sense. CV and G′ of individual plant biomass both confirm clear plant size hierarchies from early growth. However, no difference in the CV of plant size and plant tuber yield was observed between high and low plant density. This implies that, despite early interaction between neighbouring plants, competition was not the driving factor controlling plant variability. In fact uneven emergence proved to be the primary cause. Yam emergence takes place over a long period (e.g. it took 51 and 47 days for the 90% central range to emerge for D. alata and D. rotundata, respectively), creating an early inter-plant size hierarchy which later affected tuber production. For both species, plants which emerged early initiated their tuberization earlier in the growing season and reached higher maximum yield regardless of weather conditions (e.g. 1200 and 764 g plant⁻¹ for early-emerging D. alata and D. rotundata plants respectively, and 539 and 281 g plant⁻¹ for late-emerging plants). Plant size hierarchization together with its observed left-skewed distribution, led to reduce total and marketable yield by increasing the proportion of small tubers. These results highlight the need to better understand the underlying mechanisms controlling the yams’ uneven emergence before attempting to improve traditional cropping systems.     

Comparative assessment of maize,finger millet and sorghum for household food security in the face of increasing climatic risk

Questions as to which crop to grow, where, when and with what management, will be increasingly challenging for farmers in the face of a changing climate. The objective of this study was to evaluate emergence, yield and financial benefits of maize, finger millet and sorghum, planted at different dates and managed with variable soil nutrient inputs in order to develop adaptation options for stabilizing food production and income for smallholder households in the face of climate change and variability. Field experiments with maize, finger millet and sorghum were conducted in farmers’ fields in Makoni and Hwedza districts in eastern Zimbabwe for three seasons: 2009/10, 2010/11 and 2011/12. Three fertilization rates: high (90 kg N ha⁻¹, 26 kg P ha⁻¹, 7 t ha⁻¹ manure), low (35 kg N ha⁻¹, 14 kg P ha⁻¹, 3 t ha⁻¹ manure) and a control (zero fertilization); and three planting dates: early, normal and late, were compared. Crop emergence for the unfertilized finger millet and sorghum was <15% compared with >70% for the fertilized treatments. In contrast, the emergence for maize (a medium-maturity hybrid cultivar, SC635), was >80% regardless of the amount of fertilizer applied. Maize yield was greater than that of finger millet and sorghum, also in the season (2010/11) which had poor rainfall distribution. Maize yielded 5.4 t ha⁻¹ compared with 3.1 t ha⁻¹ for finger millet and 3.3 t ha⁻¹ for sorghum for the early plantings in the 2009/10 rainfall season in Makoni, a site with relatively fertile soils. In the poorer 2010/11 season, early planted maize yielded 2.4 t ha⁻¹, against 1.6 t ha⁻¹ for finger millet and 0.4 t ha⁻¹ for sorghum in Makoni. Similar yield trends were observed on the nutrient-depleted soils in Hwedza, although yields were less than those observed in Makoni. All crops yielded significantly more with increasing rates of fertilization when planting was done early or in what farmers considered the ‘normal window’. Crops planted early or during the normal planting window gave comparable yields that were greater than yields of late-planted crops. Water productivity for each crop planted early or during the normal window increased with increase in the amount of fertilizer applied, but differed between crop type. Maize had the highest water productivity (8.0 kg dry matter mm⁻¹ ha⁻¹) followed by sorghum (4.9 kg mm⁻¹ ha⁻¹) and then finger millet (4.6 kg mm⁻¹ ha⁻¹) when a high fertilizer rate was applied to the early-planted crop. Marginal rates of return for maize production were greater for the high fertilization rate (>50%) than for the low rate (<50%). However, the financial returns for finger millet were more attractive for the low fertilization rate (>100%) than for the high rate (<100%). Although maize yield was greater compared with finger millet, the latter had a higher content of calcium and can be stored for up to five years. The superiority of maize, in terms of yields, over finger millet and sorghum, suggests that the recommendation to substitute maize with small grains may not be a robust option for adaptation to increased temperatures and more frequent droughts likely to be experienced in Zimbabwe and other parts of southern Africa.     

Quantifying growth and development of bulb turnips

Bulb brassicas are used as supplementary feed in intensive pastures systems. However, there is a lack of quantitative data to define their growth and development. This has limited the creation and use of prediction models and decision support systems. Thus a field experiment measured growth and development of ‘Barkant’ and ‘Green Globe’ turnips sown on five dates from November 2008 to March 2009. In a second field experiment ‘Green Globe’ turnips were sown on four dates from December 2009 to March 2010, under two ground cover treatments that changed mean soil temperature by ∼2 °C. Bulb initiation was defined botanically as when the hypocotyl was 10 mm thick, at 360 °Cd (±13.0) for ‘Barkant’ and 420 °Cd (±13.7) (T_b = 3.6 °C) for ‘Green Globe’. However, the bulb participation in dry matter production occurs after an 18 mm hypocotyl thickness, which occurred at ∼500 °Cd for both turnip cultivars. A single base parameter of 0.995 described the exponential decline of the leaf:bulb ratio. Relationships also described how leaf production and total leaf area expansion changed up until bulb initiation. Radiation use efficiency (RUE) ranged from 1.13 to 1.33 g DM/MJ total. A constant rate of total leaf area expansion (0.015 m²/m²/°Cd) was obtained up to LAI_c for ‘Green Globe’ turnips. A third pot experiment confirmed the thermal time requirement to bulb initiation based on direct assessment of the hypocotyl thickening of ‘Barkant’ and ‘Green Globe’ turnips. Temperature was shown as the main driver of bulb development and growth. The relationships provided could be used to improve the performance of prediction models.     

Growth and yield of winter wheat in the first 3 years of a monoculture under varying N fertilization in NW Germany

Different preceding crops interact with almost all husbandry and have a major effect on crop yields. In order to quantify the yield response of winter wheat, a field trial with different preceding crop combinations (oilseed rape (OSR)–OSR–OSR–wheat–wheat–wheat), two sowing dates (mid/end of September, mid/end of October) and 16 mineral nitrogen (N) treatments (80–320 kg N ha⁻¹) during 1993/1994–1998/1999, was carried out at Hohenschulen Experimental Station near Kiel in NW Germany. Single plant biomass, tiller numbers m⁻², biomass m⁻², grain yield and yield components at harvest were investigated. During the growing season, the incidence of root rot (Gaeumannomyces graminis) was observed. Additionally, a bioassay with Lemna minor was used to identify the presence of allelochemicals in the soil after different preceding crops.Averaged over all years and all other treatments, wheat following OSR achieved nearly 9.5 t ha⁻¹, whereas the second wheat crop following wheat yielded about 0.9 t ha⁻¹ and the third wheat crop following 2 years of wheat about 1.9 t ha⁻¹ less compared with wheat after OSR. A delay of the sowing date only marginally decreased grain yield by 0.2 t ha⁻¹. Nitrogen fertilization increased grain yield after all preceding crop combinations, but at different levels. Wheat grown after OSR reached its maximum yield of 9.7 t ha⁻¹ with 210 kg N ha⁻¹. The third wheat crop required a N amount of 270 kg N ha⁻¹ to achieve its yield maximum of 8.0 t ha⁻¹.Yield losses were mainly caused by a lower ear density and a reduced thousand grain weight. About 4 weeks after plant establishment, single wheat plants following OSR accumulated more biomass compared to plants grown after wheat. Plants from the third wheat crop were smallest. This range of the preceding crop combinations was similar at all sampling dates throughout the growing season.Root rot occurred only at a low level and was excluded to cause the yield losses. The Lemna bioassay suggested the presence of allelochemicals, which might have been one reason for the poor single plant development in autumn.An increased N fertilization compensated for the lower number of ears m⁻² and partly reduced the yield losses due to the unfavorable preceding crop combination. However, it was not possible to completely compensate for the detrimental influences of an unfavorable preceding crop on the grain yield of the subsequent wheat crop.     

Coupling a sugarcane crop model with the remotely sensed time series of fIPAR to optimise the yield estimation

The objective of this study was to assess the efficiency of the assimilation of the fraction of intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (fIPAR) data derived from Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre SPOT images into the MOSICAS sugarcane crop growth model for estimating the yield at field scale on Reunion Island. Over 3 years, time series of SPOT satellite imagery were used to estimate the daily evolution of NDVI for 60 plots located on two climatically contrasted farms. Ground measurements of the fIPAR were performed on 5 reference fields and used to calibrate a relationship with the corresponding NDVI values. Forced and not forced simulations were run and compared with respect to their ability to predict the final observed yield. Forcing MOSICAS with fIPAR values derived from SPOT images improved the accuracy of the model for the yield estimation (RMSE = 12.2 against 14.8 t ha⁻¹) closer to the 1:1 line. However, underestimations of the yield by the forced model suggest that some of the model parameters were not optimal. The maximal radiation use efficiency parameter (RUE_m) was optimised for each field, and an analysis of variance showed the significant effect of the ratoon number of the field, of its cultivar and of the farm where it is planted. Accordingly, the RUE_m was recalibrated for each cultivar for the number of ratoons and farms. New RUE_m values ranged from 3.09 to 3.77 g MJ⁻¹, and new computations were run using the optimised values of RUE_m. The results indicate that recalibrating the maximal radiation use efficiency according to the number of ratoons improved the yield estimation accuracy by as much as 10.5 t ha⁻¹ RMSE. This study highlights the potential of time series of satellite images to enhance the estimation of the yield by a forced ecophysiological model and to obtain better knowledge about the ecophysiological processes that are involved in crop dynamics with the recalibration method.     

Effects of cinnamon extract,chitosan coating,hot water treatment and their combinations on crown rot disease and quality of banana fruit

The antifungal activities of cinnamon extract (CE), piper extract (PE) and garlic extract (GE) were evaluated on banana crown rot fungi (Colletotrichum musae, Fusarium spp. and Lasiodiplodia theobromae) in vitro. The assay was conducted with extracts of CE, PE and GE with concentrations of 0, 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 5.0, 10.0 and 0.75 g L⁻¹ of carbendazim (CBZ) on potato dextrose agar at room temperature. CE completely inhibited conidial germination and mycelial growth of all fungi at 5.0 g L⁻¹. PE totally suppressed mycelial growth of all fungi at 5.0 g L⁻¹ and conidial germination at 10.0 g L⁻¹ except for Fusarium spp. GE had no significant effects but low concentrations (0.1 and 0.5 g L⁻¹) enhanced germ tube elongation of the three fungi. The ED₅₀ values were higher for mycelial growth than for conidia except for Fusarium spp. Combined treatments were investigated on crown rot development in banana fruit (Musa AAA group ‘Kluai Hom thong’). Treatments included 5.0 g L⁻¹ CE, 1% (w/v) chitosan solution, hot water treatment (HWT, 45 °C for 20 min), CE plus chitosan, CE plus HWT and 0.75 g L⁻¹ of CBZ, applied before and after inoculation of the fruit. Crown rot development was assessed during storage at 13 °C for 7 weeks. Disease development was least (25%) on CE treated fruit after inoculation compared to CBZ but was higher when CE was applied before inoculation. Chitosan significantly delayed ripening as in terms of peel color, firmness, soluble solids and disease severity. CE showed no negative effects on quality of fruit. CE plus HWT caused unacceptable peel browning.     

Increased utilization of lengthening growing season and warming temperatures by adjusting sowing dates and cultivar selection for spring maize in Northeast China

Global warming has lengthened the theoretical growing season of spring maize in Northeast China (NEC), and the temperatures during the growing season have increased. In practise, crop producers adjust sowing dates and alternate crop cultivars to take advantage of the lengthening growing season and increasing temperatures. In this study, we used crop data and daily weather data for 1981–2007 at five locations in NEC to quantify the utilization of the lengthening growing season and increasing temperatures by adjusting sowing dates and cultivar selection for spring maize production. If these two positive factors are not fully utilized, then it is important to know the potential impacts of these climatic trends on spring maize grain yields. The results show that in NEC, both the actual and theoretical growing seasons are lengthening, i.e., the sowing dates have been advanced and the maturity dates have been delayed. The actual sowing dates are 1–8 days later and the actual maturity dates are 6–22 days earlier than the theoretical perspective. Advancing sowing dates and changing cultivars led to 0–5 days and 6–26 days extension of the growing season. For the potential thermal time (TT), adjusting the sowing dates decreased the unutilized TT before sowing, while the cultivar selection increased the utilized TT and decreased the unutilized TT after maturity. On average, the unutilized heating resource before sowing is less than that after the maturity date (0.3–1.9% vs. 2.1–7.8%). During 1981–2007, for per day extension of the growing season, the spring maize grain yield increased by 75.2 kg ha⁻¹. The spring maize grain yields have increased by 7.1–57.2% when both early sowing and changing cultivars during 1981–2007. In particular, adjusting the sowing dates increased the grain yield by 1.1–7.3%, which was far less than the increase effect (6.5–43.7%) from switching to late maturing cultivars. Therefore, selecting late maturing cultivars is an important technique to improve maize grain yields in NEC under the global warming context. Nevertheless, if the currently unutilized TT were fully explored, the local spring maize grain yield would have increased by 12.0–38.4%.     

Thiabendazole residue loading in dip,drench and wax coating applications to control green mould and chilling injury on citrus fruit

Green mould (caused by Penicillium digitatum) is a major cause of postharvest losses in citrus. Residue loading of thiabendazole (TBZ) with application methods typically used in South African packhouses and green mould control was studied. TBZ was applied curatively and protectively in dip, drench and wax coating treatments and fruit were inoculated with a TBZ-sensitive or a TBZ-resistant isolate of P. digitatum. The dip treatments consisted of TBZ concentrations of 0–2000 μg mL⁻¹; fruit were dipped for 60 s at 22 °C at a pH of 7. Residues differed between fruit batches and ranged from 0.5 to 1.7 μg g⁻¹ at 1000 μg mL⁻¹ TBZ. Curative dip treatments almost completely controlled green mould (>96% at 1000 μg mL⁻¹ TBZ). The residue level needed for 75% curative control ranged from 0.06 to 0.22 μg g⁻¹, depending on citrus type. Protective treatments were unreliable and control varied from 17% to 97.9% at 1000 μg mL⁻¹ TBZ between fruit batches. Drench treatments consisted of exposure times of 30, 60 and 90 s with 1000 or 2000 μg mL⁻¹ TBZ. Average TBZ residues were 2.14 μg g⁻¹ for Clementine mandarin fruit and 3.50 μg g⁻¹ for navel orange fruit. Green mould control on navel orange fruit resulted in 66–92%, 34–90% and 9–38% control for curative treatments after 6 and 24 h and protective treatments, respectively, depending on fruit batch. Wax with 4000 μg mL⁻¹ TBZ was applied at 0.6, 1.2 and 1.8 L wax ton⁻¹ fruit. Chilling injury was evaluated after fruit storage at −0.5 °C for 40 days. Average TBZ residues loaded was 1.3, 1.3 and 2.7 μg g⁻¹ at the recommended 1.2 L ton⁻¹ for Satsuma mandarin, Clementine mandarin and Valencia orange fruit, respectively. Protective treatments showed lower infection levels (14–20%) than curative treatments (27–40%) for Valencia orange fruit. The same trend was observed with Satsuma (92–95% curative; 87–90% protective) and Clementine mandarin fruit (82–90% curative; 59–88% protective), but control was relatively poor. TBZ application in wax exceeded 5 μg g⁻¹ at higher wax loads (1.2 and 1.8 L ton⁻¹). Wax treatments showed a significant reduction in chilling injury; TBZ had an additive effect. TBZ resistant isolates could not be controlled.     

Evaluation of curative and protective control of Penicillium digitatum following imazalil application in wax coating

Imazalil (IMZ) is widely used in citrus packhouses to manage green mould, caused by Penicillium digitatum. The aim of this study was to investigate green mould control efficacy of IMZ applied in a wax coating, and the combination of aqueous dip and coating IMZ applications. Single application of IMZ at 3000 μg mL⁻¹ in carnauba wax coating at rates of 0.6, 1.2 and 1.8 L tonne⁻¹ of fruit gave better protective (mean 13% infection) than curative (mean 70% infection) control of the sensitive isolate. Imazalil residue levels increased (0.85 to 1.75 μg g⁻¹) with increasing coating load. However, the resistant isolate could not be controlled (>74% infection). Dip only treatment (IMZ sulphate at 500 μg mL⁻¹ for 45 s and 90 s) gave good curative control (≈77%) of the sensitive isolate at residue loading of 0.12–0.73 μg g⁻¹. Wax coating only treatment (IMZ at 3000 μg mL⁻¹ at 1.8 L wax tonne⁻¹) gave good protective control and improved sporulation inhibition (≈80%) at residue loading of 1.32–7.09 μg g⁻¹. The MRL of 5 μg g⁻¹ was exceeded at higher wax loads on navels and clementines. Double application with dip (45 s in IMZ sulphate at 500 μg mL⁻¹) followed by 2000 μg mL⁻¹ IMZ in wax coating at 0.6, 1.2 and 1.8 L wax tonne⁻¹ resulted in residue loading of 1.42 to 2.83 μg g⁻¹, increased protective control (≈69%) as well as curative control (≈83%). In all treatments, poor curative and protective control of the resistant isolate was observed (<46% and <55%, respectively). Double application demonstrated superior green mould control by giving good curative and protective control and sporulation inhibition.     

Energy balance of winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) cropping as related to nitrogen supply and preceding crop

Data from a field experiment (1995–2000) conducted on a fertile sandy loess in the Hercynian dry region of central Germany were used to determine the energy efficiency of winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) as affected by previous crop and nitrogen (N) fertilization. Depending on the previous crop, winter oilseed rate was cultivated in two different crop rotations: (1) winter barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)–winter oilseed rape–winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), and (2) pea (Pisum sativum L.)–winter oilseed rape–winter wheat. Fertilizer was applied to winter oilseed rape as either calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) or cattle manure slurry. The N rates applied to winter oilseed rape corresponded to 0, 80, 160 and 240 kg N ha⁻¹ a⁻¹.Results revealed that different N management strategies influenced the energy balance of winter oilseed rape. Averaged across years, the input of energy to winter oilseed rape was highly variable ranging from 7.42 to 16.1 GJ ha⁻¹. Lowest energy input occurred when unfertilized winter oilseed rape followed winter barley, while the highest value was obtained when winter oilseed rape received 240 kg N ha⁻¹ organic fertilization and followed winter barley. The lowest energy output (174 GJ ha⁻¹), energy from seed and straw of winter oilseed rape, was observed when winter oilseed rape receiving 80 kg N ha⁻¹ as organic fertilizer followed winter barley. The energy output increased to 262 GJ ha⁻¹ for winter oilseed rape receiving 240 kg N ha⁻¹ as mineral fertilizer followed pea. The energy efficiency was determined using the parameters energy gain (net energy output), energy intensity (energy input per unit grain equivalent GE; term GE is used to express the contribution that crops make to the nutrition of monogastric beings), and output/input ratio. The most favourable N rate for maximizing energy gain (250 GJ ha⁻¹) was 240 kg N ha⁻¹, while that needed for minimum energy intensity (91.3 MJ GE⁻¹) was 80 kg N ha⁻¹ and for maximum output/input ratio (29.8) was 0 kg N ha⁻¹.