Socio-economic factors affecting smallholder tree planting and management intentions in Leyte Province,Philippines

Survey data have been collected from four rural communities in Leyte Province, the Philippines, on household tree planting and management intentions, as well as the socio-economic characteristics, attitudes to tree planting and management, farming practices and the number of trees planted. In relation to intended tree planting and management activities, respondents were asked a series of structured questions as to what tree species they intend to plant, how many individual trees of each of those species they plan to plant, and for what purpose they propose to plant each of the tree species. This paper reports the results of analyses of the stated tree management intentions of households in the four communities and identifies the socioeconomic factors that influence householders’ tree management intentions. Respondents were generally enthusiastic about the possibility for further tree planting on their land, 75% indicating they would undertake planting. About 60% indicated an interest in commercial tree farming, with no significant differences in this level of interest between communities. It was found that a number of socio-economic variables indicating higher levels of land ownership and previous experience in the forestry industry are related to the intention to plant trees to produce timber for sale. These include the use of materials from public lands, participation in community organisations and community forestry programs, and the present management of trees to produce timber for sale.     

Tree planting in the Falkland Islands

The Falkland Islands experience a cool, windy and relativelydry climate. The soil is typically shallow peat over clay, althoughdeeper peat is locally present, and the natural vegetation isgrass-heath with no native trees or large shrubs. Climatic andsoil conditions, lack of knowledge and inadequate protectionhave hampered past attempts to establish a wide variety of treespecies. Successful results have been largely confined to favourablesites near houses and gardens. A very few sizeable tree plotsexist, notably at Hill Cove, Roy Cove, Weddell Island and CarcassIsland. Tree planting prospects were appraised during a visitin 1983. The creation of effective shelterbelts appeared feasible,using modern establishment techniques developed in upland Britain,correct species choice, careful site selection, adequate beltwidth, protection against damage, good technical supervisionand patience. The most promising species are Cupressus macrocarpa,Picea sitchensis (Queen Charlotte Islands origin), Pinus contorta(coastal origins only), Pinus radiata and Nothofagus betuloides.Using the same species, limited planting for wood productionmay also be possible on a very few sheltered, moist, accessiblesites. Small scale amenity and shelter planting for houses andgardens is clearly practicable. Imported planting stock willbe necessary due to the impracticality of raising sizeable quantitiesin the Islands.     

山西退耕还林还草情况调研报告

1　吉县退耕还林 (草 )进程与做法1 1　进展情况吉县退耕还林试点县确定后 ,林业局及时制定了县级实施方案、完成了作业设计 ,将退耕还林任务落实到全县 1 2个乡镇 2 8个行政村的 1 582个农户。截至目前 ,9万亩任务已全部完成 ,其中退耕地完成栽植 1 6万亩 ,宜林荒山完成栽植 6 8万亩 ,共完成栽植 8 4万亩 ,整地 0 6万亩。1 2　主要做法( 1 )层层落实领导责任。县政府成立了由县长挂帅 ,林、粮、土和财政有关部门组成的退耕还林 (草 )领导组 ,实行各级政府一把手负责制 ,县、乡和有工程的村委层层签订了责任状 ,职能部门的技术人员包规…     

Complex regulatory frameworks governing private smallholder tree plantations in Gunungkidul District,Indonesia

Smallholder tree plantation, now on the increase in Indonesia, has long been practiced by rural farmers as a strategy to optimize the expected utility of land, labor and other constraints. Increasing demand for timber has driven a shift toward commercialization of smallholder forestry. However, smallholders face huge challenges when they seek for commercial markets in the form of complex regulatory frameworks applied to smallholder plantations. This paper discusses the case of smallholder plantations in Gunungkidul District (Indonesia), considered one of the most commercialized timber marketing hubs for local, national and international markets. It analyzes how opportunities and challenges, resulted from different regulatory frameworks, affect the competitiveness of smallholder forestry practices. In this paper, regulatory frameworks are defined as not only regulations issued by public administrators at the domestic (local and national) level, but also cover the emerging market-based regulatory frameworks, i.e. voluntary certification of sustainable forestry and mandatory timber legality verification.     

Factors influencing tree species diversity and Betula alleghaniensis establishment in silvicultural openings

We examined the short-term effects of group-selection harvestingwith seed tree retention on the diversity, abundance and establishmentof tree seedlings in a northern hardwood forest in the UpperPeninsula of Michigan (49 openings, 20 closed canopy referencesites). Three opening sizes were examined – opening radius0.5 x canopy height (267 ± 62 m², n = 16), 0.75 x canopyheight (642 ± 85 m², n = 17) and 1.0 x canopy height(1192 ± 155 m², n = 16) (canopy height = 22 m). A singleyellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis Britt.) seed tree was retainedin the centre of each opening. Tree seedling density was significantlyhigher in the largest group-selection opening than at the closedcanopy reference sites (P < 0.05), the main factor for thiswas the increased proportion of yellow birch, red maple (Acerrubrum L.) and other minor species. Nevertheless, yellow birchwas still a minor component of the developing gap cohort, comprising5.9 per cent of the seedlings and 1.1 per cent of the saplings.Within openings, microsite variables, such as per cent coversof bare soil and coarse woody debris, were the best predictorsof yellow birch occurrence and density. Our results suggestthat microsite limitations and competing vegetation may greatlyreduce the efficacy of openings for ensuring the maintenanceof mid-tolerants.     

Growth performance of sixty tree species in smallholder reforestation trials on Leyte, Philippines

Although many reforestation projects have attempted to mitigate deforestation in the Philippines, most have focused on planting introduced trees, often with low success rates. A smallholder-based project in the Visayas region planted native species instead. This study assessed the growth performance of forty-four native and sixteen introduced species in 25 sites established by this project between 1995 and 2000. Diameter at breast height and total height were measured for 2,789 trees. Mean annual increments for diameter (MAID) at breast height and height (MAIH) were significantly higher for trees planted on limestone-influenced soils (MAID = 1.19 cm/year; MAIH = 1.05 m/year) than on purely volcanic soils (MAID = 0.81 cm/year; MAIH = 0.78 m/year). Growth of two native species, Melia dubia and Terminalia microcarpa, was higher than that of the widely planted exotic Swietenia macrophylla. The height increment for the highest-performing dipterocarp species, Shorea guiso, Shorea contorta, and Parashorea malaanonan, was not statistically different from the MAIH of S. macrophylla. A range of soil characteristics predicted performance, with organic matter predicting growth for six species, and percent nitrogen and percent clay predicting performance of five species. These findings show that certain native species can perform better than some exotic species when planted in open areas. They also disprove the widely held belief in the Philippines that Dipterocarpaceae cannot be planted in grasslands, and suggest that dipterocarps can be used successfully in reforestation. Finally, the findings show that more research is needed on species-site matching and on silvicultural management of native species plantations.     

Competitiveness of mechanized tree planting in Finland

Economic pressures and labor shortage are forcing forest owners to minimize silvicultural costs and manage their forests more intensively to enhance wood production and profitability. The need to improve the cost-efficiency of tree planting is spurring its mechanization. The cost-competitiveness and time consumption of mechanized tree planting in Finland were compared to manual planting (MP) in spot mounds formed with a mounding blade and with a continuously advancing spot mounder. The results suggest that mechanized planting must increase its current productivity by 25% and 100% in order to compete with spot mounding or continuously advancing mounder followed by MP, respectively. However, in the hands of skilled operators in optimal conditions, machines can be cost-effective. On average, mechanized planting required 20% less time than MP and excavator-based spot mounding, whereas MP and continuously advancing spot mounder required 30% less time. Effective use of modern machines requires a careful evaluation of the worksite and skilled operators applying optimal operational models.     

Factors influencing germination and establishment of Eucalyptus pauciflora near the alpine tree line

Factors affecting seed germination, seedling establishment and growth to reproductive maturity in Eucalyptus pauciflora Sieb. ex Spreng. at the tree line in southeastern Australia were investigated. Timing of germination was determined principally by temperature but could be strongly modified by soil water. Mortality of germinants was heaviest during the first growing season (dependent on soil water) and the first winter (dependent on the depth and duration of snow cover). Neither plant nor soil treatments with insecticide or fungicide had an overriding or consistent effect on germination or seedling establishment. The probability of reaching the sapling stage was greater for planted seedlings than for plants germinated on site, indicating the dependence of survival on accumulated reserves. There was no clear indication of a general decrease in survival with increasing altitude, because of an interplay between elevation and site factors including competing vegetation, snow depth and period of snow cover. Five-year-old saplings planted up to 200 m above the tree line produced reproductive structures and viable seed between the ages of 13 and 18 years. The relevance of the results to an understanding of the location of the present tree line is discussed.     

山西省林业生态环境建设与退耕还林还草试点工作探索

1　林业生态环境建设与保护的基本情况山西省是全国生态环境最为脆弱的省份之一。建国初期 ,全省森林面积只有 551万亩 ,森林覆盖率仅为 2 4% ,水土流失与风沙危害极为严重。为了改善和保护生态环境 ,历届省委、省政府带领全省人民发扬自力更生、艰苦奋斗的优良传统 ,大力开展植树造林 ,绿化荒漠 ,努力改善生态环境。农村改革以来 ,先后承担实施了三北防护林、黄河中游防护林、太行山绿化、平原绿化、防沙治沙等五大国家重点林业生态工程 ,取得了可喜成绩 ,使全省林地面积 (包括四旁树折算和灌木面积 )发展到 470 0万亩 ,林木覆被率达到 2 …     

Homestead tree planting in two rural Swazi communities

Tree planting practices were investigated on a total of 95 homesteads in two communities in rural Swaziland. Information was also collected on socioeconomic characteristics of the homesteads. In both the study areas, Sigombeni and Bhekinkhosi, there was considerable variation amongst individual homesteads in size, relative wealth (as indicated by cattle and motor vehicle ownership), and amount and types of trees planted. Eighty-five percent of all homesteads in Sigombeni and 73 percent in Bhekinkhosi had planted at least one tree. Common forms of planting included small woodlots, fruit trees, and ornamentals. Virtually all the woodlots consisted of two introduced wattle species (Acacia mearnsii and A. decurrens). The most commonly planted fruit trees were avocadoes, bananas, and peaches. No complex or labor-intensive agroforestry practices (such as maize/leucaena intercropping) were observed. There was some evidence that the poorest and newest homesteads were the least likely to have planted any trees and that the richest homesteads were the most likely to have planted woodlots. The results indicate that forestry research and extension efforts should take into account homestead characteristics, and strive to offer a range of tree planting options that vary in input requirements, labor needs, and complexity.     

漆树的生物学特性及繁殖栽培技术要点

漆树是我国重要的经济林木,所产生漆具有很高的经济实用价值。结合凉山高海拔地区的生产实践、漆树的生物学特性及分布环境出发,探索了漆树的繁殖栽培管理技术,为长江中上游退耕还林地区提供栽培一种具有很高经济、社会及生态价值的林木提供依据。     

都市商业步行街植物景观配置

通过对商业步行街的特性分析,并根据当今植物景观所要求体现的内容,初步提出在步行街中如何科学配置植物,以达到协调环境,表现环境,突出环境的目的。     

退耕还林的实践与思考——陕西省延安市宝塔区姚店镇案例分析

1999年退耕还林工程在全国开始启动时 ,各地纷纷出台许多退耕还林的办法和政策以保证田能退得下来林能还得上。而陕西省宝塔区姚店镇却已在描绘已退耕的林地上如何培养后续资源 ,使农民手中有更多的钱可用的蓝图。姚店镇从 1 986年开始退耕还林 ,到 1 999年 ,已发展经济林 2 .4万多亩 ,人均 2亩多 ,林业已成为当地主导产业之一。从 1 997年以来 ,苹果价格每年以 0 .1元 /ｋｇ的速度下滑 ,但当地农民对林业的发展仍充满信心。纵观姚店镇退耕还林的历程 ,给我们留下了许多值得思考的问题。1　姚店镇退耕还林的实践1 1　退耕还林的发展阶段消…     

Factors influencing stream occupancy and detection probability parameters of stream-associated amphibians in commercial forests of Oregon and Washington, USA

Potential immediate and prolonged impact of timber harvests on stream-associated amphibians (SAA; torrent (Rhyacotriton spp.) and giant salamanders (Dicamptodon spp.) and coastal tailed frogs (Ascaphus truei)) in Oregon and Washington, USA is a management concern, in part because of widespread commercial management of forests across their geographic distributions. Relationships between SAA occupancy and detection probabilities, environmental variables, and management effects were examined in 141 randomly selected perennial streams in commercial forests west of the Cascade Crest in Oregon and Washington from July to October, 2006. Giant salamander occupancy varied by stream substrate type (i.e., consolidated vs. unconsolidated geologies) and was positively associated with stand age. Torrent salamander occupancy varied by species, was positively associated with channel gradient, and was reduced in the youngest and oldest sampled stands. Tailed frog occupancy was negatively associated with the presence of crayfish, negatively associated with low and high bankfull widths, and positively associated with stand age, although stands less than 5 years old had occupancy rates >50% in the absence of crayfish. Mean detection rates were less than 1 for all three genera (0.85, 0.66, and 0.63 for Dicamptodon, Rhyacotriton, and Ascaphus, respectively), which indicates that conclusions from previous research about relationships between SAA occupancy, environmental variables, and forest practices have an unknown element of uncertainty, particularly if detection rates co-vary with habitat change. We believe that our study is the first to present unbiased estimates of occupancy and detection parameters for SAA on forested landscapes in Oregon and Washington.     

Regeneration of commercial tree species in a logged forest in the Selva Maya, Mexico

One of the main threats to the sustainability of community forestry in the Selva Maya is insufficient regeneration of commercial tree species. We evaluated the regeneration status of 22 commercial tree species in a managed semideciduous tropical rain forest in Southern Mexico. The study was carried out in six harvesting areas along a 16-year chronosequence. In each area, 10 transects (1000 m²) were established and all trees >50 cm height and <10 cm diameter were recorded. We evaluated the relationships between seedling and sapling abundance, and canopy cover and disturbance condition (closed forest, canopy gap, log landing, skid road, primary road and secondary road). The area occupied by closed forest canopy increased with age of harvesting area (65–91% of sampled area), while the area occupied by canopy gaps decreased (22–9%). Log landings occupied less than 1% of the sampled area. The predominant canopy cover was 75–80% in all harvesting areas, even in the most recently harvested areas. The highest densities of seedlings and saplings, of both shade tolerant and intolerant species, were found in log landing and skid trails, followed by secondary roads. Even Simarouba glauca, a shade tolerant species, displayed higher densities in sites with ≤65% of canopy cover. Our results support previous findings and indicate that the levels of disturbance caused by existing harvesting procedures may be inadequate to promote sufficient regeneration of not only light demanding desirable species but also for some of the evaluated shade tolerant species of commercial interest. Seedling and sapling densities exhibited by Swietenia macrophylla, for example, are insufficient to support current harvesting rates. The application of a spatial mixed system with patch-cuts of different sizes, a consequence of group felling, could be applied to provide the necessary conditions for the regeneration of the main commercial species.     

A review of tree fodder production and utilization within smallholder agroforestry systems in Kenya

Although the biological advantages in terms of animal production and improved soil fertility of the use of herbaceous legumes have been well demonstrated in Kenya and elsewhere, adoption by small-scale farmers has often been disappointing. This has led to increased research into the use of both indigenous and exotic fodder trees. In common with conventional pasture legumes, tree fodders contain high levels of crude protein and minerals and many show high levels of digestibility. They are readily accepted by livestock and presumably because of their deep-root systems, they continue to produce well into the dry season. Antinutritive factors can be a problem, however, and polyphenolics, toxic amino acids, cyanogenic glycosides and alkaloids are found in many tree species. There are abundant niches on small farms where fodder trees can be grown without affecting crop production. Although detailed management recommendations are lacking, guidelines exist with regard to appropriate cutting heights and harvesting frequencies. In the Embu region, it has been estimated that three kg of fresh fodder of Calliandra calothyrsus has the same effect on milk production as one kg of commercial dairy meal. Up to about 500 trees (250 m of hedgerow) will produce enough fodder to supplement one dairy cow for a complete lactation. The tree fodder can either replace the concentrate without loss of yield, or it can complement it to produce more milk. It is being enthusiastically adopted by small-scale farmers, many of whom are starting to produce their own seed. Other tree species are now being studied in order to avoid over-reliance on a single fodder species. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

绿化树种沙冷杉引种栽培技术

沙冷杉为我省野生常绿树种 ,树冠塔形 ,叶色翠绿 ,绿化观赏价值很高 ,值得大力开发应用。此文就其主要形态特征、生态习性、苗木培育以及园林应用进行了充分论述 ,为沙冷杉在园林绿化中的进一步应用和推广提供必要的理论依据。     

Financial attractiveness of smallholder tree plantations in the Amazon: bridging external expectations and local realities

This paper compares the financial attractiveness of forest and agroforestry plantations promoted by external organizations with tree growing practices of Amazonian smallholders. Based on 80 case studies and interviews with 112 forestry professionals from Brazil, Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador, the paper characterizes the economic, environmental and structural implications, and identifies the respective financial costs and benefits. Six case studies provided data for in-depth financial analyses. The results showed that the expectations of externally promoted smallholder tree and agroforestry plantations were not met. Despite significant inputs, smallholders generated at best annual net incomes of US$200–$200–1,000 per ha from NTFP plantations, and up to US$800–$800–1,000 from timber plantations in the year of harvest. This corresponded to around one-third of the initially expected returns. Overall, only around 1% of the smallholders participating in such initiatives managed to produce and commercialize any plantation products. Smallholders’ practices of complementary tree growing in conjunction with agriculture and managing natural regeneration of timber and NTFP products were often underestimated by professionals. They required low input, didn’t rely on external support, were highly flexible in risky environments, and some presented financial returns comparable to some well functioning plantations.     

Household and farm attributes affecting adoption of smallholder timber management practices by tree growers in Gunungkidul region,Indonesia

Farm household characteristics determine the success of programs promoting agroforestry systems and practices. This paper reports household and farm factors affecting the adoption of timber management practices by smallholders in the Gunungkidul region, Central Java, Indonesia. The research used three logistic regression analysis models—based on each household and farm characteristic, and a composite of both together—to identify the key factors influencing farmers’ adoption and management decisions, and their relative importance. A sample of 152 farmers who managed their trees primarily for timber production was compared to a sample of 115 farmers with similar socio-economic characteristics who did not. The household condition and composite models identified both on-farm and off-farm gross incomes as significant factors affecting farmers’ decisions to manage timber trees. The models confirmed that farmers with larger farms, and with higher on- and off-farm incomes, were more likely to manage their trees for timber production. These results have implications for extension programs that promote adoption of commercial timber management by smallholders in the case study and similar regions.     

退耕还林还草与发展西部经济政策建议

从粮食供需状态的角度阐述退耕还林还草政策来源。依据农民对坡耕地生存的依赖性以及劣等地的经济特性 ,论证了政策实施的困难 ,从而提出尽快推行停耕封山补粮政策。根据经济全球化规律 ,论述了西部经济发展的劣势 ,提出了运用“税收”杠杆使西部经济发展 ,吸纳退耕后的剩余劳动力 ,彻底避免复耕。