Effects of dietary β‐glucan and glycyrrhizin on non‐specific immunity and disease resistance of white shrimp,Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone) challenged with Vibrio alginolyticus

The white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei, fed immunostimulant‐free, 0.2%β‐glucan and 0.06% glycyrrhizin diets for 18 days, respectively, were challenged with Vibrio alginolyticus at 6.4 × 10⁴ CFU shrimp^?1. The total haemocyte count (THC), phenoloxidase (PO) activity, respiratory burst (RB) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity changes for a 120‐h period were investigated, and shrimp mortality was also recorded. The results showed that PO activity, RB and SOD activity were significantly higher in shrimp fed the two immunostimulant diets after 18 days than those in shrimp fed immunostimulant‐free diets. The THC and SOD activity decreased significantly from 0 to 24 h post challenge, and then reverted to normal levels at 96 and 72 h respectively. The values for PO activity and RB increased from 0 to 48 h post challenge. Compared with those fed the control diets, shrimp fed immunostimulants had significantly higher PO activity and RB values at 120 h post challenge. Mortalities after challenge with V. alginolyticus were significantly lower in shrimp fed with β‐glucan or glycyrrhizin than in those fed with a diet without immunostimulants. It was concluded that dietary β‐glucan and glycyrrhizin increased the shrimp immunity. Furthermore, β‐glucan caused an increase in some immune parameters 12 h earlier than glycyrrhizin after V. alginolyticus challenge.     

Oral Administration of Hot‐water Extract of Tropical Brown Seaweed,Sargassum cristaefolium,to Enhance Immune Response,Stress Tolerance,and Resistance of White Shrimp,Litopenaeus vannamei,to Vibrio parahaemolyticus

The efficacy of hot‐water extract of tropical brown seaweed, Sargassum cristaefolium (SCE), supplemented in diets on immune response, stress tolerance, and disease resistance of Litopenaeus vannamei to Vibrio parahaemolyticus was evaluated. Shrimp were fed diets containing graded levels of SCE (0, 250, 500, 750, and 1000 mg/kg). The results showed that shrimp fed all diets containing SCE had significantly higher (P < 0.05) immune response in total hemocyte count (THC), differential hemocyte count (granular and hyaline cells), and phagocytic activity than those of shrimp fed the control diet. Similarly, in low dissolved oxygen stress tolerance test and the challenge test with V. parahaemolyticus, survival rates of shrimp fed all diets containing SCE were significantly higher (P < 0.05) (83–93% in stress test and 27–47% in challenge test) than those of shrimp fed the control diet (77 and 3.3%, respectively). These results suggest that oral administration of SCE at 500 and 750 mg/kg can be effectively used to enhance immune response, stress tolerance, and resistance of white shrimp, L. vannamei, against V. parahaemolyticus infection. These findings also confirm that using dietary SCE as immunostimulant is effective at increasing the nonspecific immune system in penaeid shrimp, L. vannamei.     

Dietary administration of soybean isoflavones enhances the immunity of white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei and its resistance against Vibrio alginolyticus

The growth response, total hemocyte count (THC), respiratory burst (release of superoxide anion), phenoloxidase (PO) activity, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity and resistance to the pathogen Vibrio alginolyticus were measured in white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) which had been fed diets supplemented with soybean isoflavones (SI) at 0, 5, 10, 20, 40 mg kg^?1 feed for 8 weeks. Dietary SI had no significant influence on survival rate of the shrimp. Significantly greater SGR was observed in treatments with 10, 20 and 40 mg kg^?1 SI supplement than that in control (P < 0.05). Shrimp fed a diet with 20 mg kg^?1 SI showed significant increase in THC, PO activity, respiratory burst activity, SOD activity as well as NOS activity (P < 0.05). Increased THC, respiratory burst activity, SOD activity and NOS activity were also noticed in shrimp fed SI at 10 or 40 mg kg^?1 (P < 0.05). Significant lower cumulative mortality after challenge was observed in shrimp fed diets with SI supplement (10.0–13.3%) than that in control group (36.7%) (P < 0.05). It is therefore concluded that oral administration of SI at 20 mg kg^?1 for 8 weeks could enhance the immune ability of shrimp and improve production in shrimp farming.     

棕点石斑鱼中草药免疫增强剂的快速筛选

采用离体外周血白细胞与中草药水提液共同孵育法,快速筛选棕点石斑鱼中草药免疫增强剂。39种生药量浓度为100 mg/ml 的中草药水提液及添加5.0 mg/ml 酵母聚糖的中草药水提液分别与棕点石斑鱼外周血白细胞孵育后,采用氮蓝四唑(NBT)还原法检测各种中草药水提液对棕点石斑鱼外周血白细胞氧呼吸爆发活性的影响,再以吞噬乳胶微球法检测具有显著增强白细胞氧呼吸爆发活性效果的中草药对棕点石斑鱼白细胞吞噬活性的影响,筛选中草药免疫增强剂,并将其拌料饲喂棕点石斑鱼,考察其对棕点石斑鱼外周血和头肾白细胞氧呼吸爆发活性的影响。结果显示,39种中草药中有10种对棕点石斑鱼离体白细胞氧呼吸爆发活性显著提高15%以上,3种酵母聚糖添加组对白细胞氧呼吸爆发活性提高70%以上;筛选出可同时提高棕点石斑鱼离体白细胞的氧呼吸爆发活性和吞噬活性的 3种中草药,它们分别为鸡血藤、黄柏和墨旱莲。拌料饲喂实验结果显示,饲喂1%的鸡血藤、黄柏和墨旱莲可显著提高棕点石斑鱼体内外周血和头肾白细胞氧呼吸爆发活性。     

对虾免疫机能研究概况

Shrimp farming is an important source of revenue and employment in many developing countries.However, infectious diseases have adversely affected the profitability of shrimp industry. For this reason, disease prevention is a priority and shrimp immunology has become a crucial research area of this field. In this paper, the current importance and problems of shrimp-culture were described and the research advances in shrimp immunological defence mechanisms were summarized. The immunological tools are powerful and useful to evaluate the health state of the shrimp. The immunologies of shrimp mainly consist of cellular immunity and humoral immunity. In regard to cellular parameters, they are composed of haemocyte count (THC), differential haemocyte count (DHC) and reactive oxygen intermediates (ROIs). The immunity ceils exert their defence functions through phagocytizing, enveloping, etc, and the changes of THC and DHC are related to health state of shrimp. The ROIs generated during post phagocytic event which maybe an important marker to evaluate the immunological capability and phenoloxidase activity have been considered as a potential marker which is relevant to the health of the shrimp too. Concerning humoral parameters, prophenoloxidase (ProPO) and phenoloxidase,antimicrobial peptides and proteins, hemagglutinin and plasma proteins were described. The determining methods of immunity parameters were discussed. The response of shrimp to pathogens such as bacteria, virus, etc. and environmental factors such as DO, pH, etc, were also reviewed. It is well-known that the immune responses induced by immunizing crustacean or shrimp are mainly the non-specific immune responses. The potential of immunological parameters, including the changes of THC and DHC, the production of ROIs, phenoloxidase (PO) activity, antibacterial activity of plasma, and so on, to appraise the healthy state of shrimp were partly discussed. The future directions for the evaluation of the immunological capability of shrimp were proposed.     

Immune responses by dietary supplement with Astragalus polysaccharides in the Pacific white shrimp,Litopenaeus vannamei

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the immune‐enhancing effect of dietary supplement with Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) on the Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei. In experiment 1, the optimal APS dose was determined based on the immune responses of shrimps fed APS diet for 30 days. In experiment 2, the effect of APS supplementation on immune response of shrimp suffering white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) challenge was determined. Results showed that the total haemocyte count and phagocytic activity in shrimps fed APS diets significantly (p < .05) increased in comparison with those fed the basal diet. Dietary supplement with APS markedly (p < .05) increased the activity of phenoloxidase (PO), total superoxide dismutase (SOD), lysozyme (LZM), acid phosphatase and alkaline phosphatase in shrimp hemolymph, but decreased the maleic dialdehyde (MDA) content. Significantly higher (p < .05) activity on PO, SOD and LZM and lower (p < .05) MDA content have also been found in shrimps suffering WSSV challenge. Therefore, APS could be used as a safe and effective feed additive in shrimp aquaculture, and the optimal dose of APS for the Pacific white shrimp was suggested to be 0.2 g/kg based on our results.     

免疫增强剂在水产养殖中的应用

免疫增强剂作为一种有效控制鱼类疾病的物质，在水产养殖中已得到广泛地应用。目前较常用的免疫增强剂主要有合成化学剂类、微生物类衍生物、动植物提取物、维生素以及激素和乳铁蛋白等。国内外对多糖、几丁质、乳铁蛋白等在鱼虾中的抗病作用做了大量报道，对促生长作用的免疫增强剂(VB、VC、生长激素、促乳素等)也有过不少研究。在虾贝类非特异性免疫系统中，免疫增强剂主要是通过激活吞噬细胞、激活酚氧化酶活力等来提高机体的抗病能力；在鱼类免疫系统中则主要表现为激活抗菌溶菌活力、提高抗体免疫效应以及激活补体等。机体内的免疫活性与机体的抗病能力密切相关，免疫增强剂能有效增强免疫因子的活性，对控制细菌性病原(鳗弧菌、分支杆菌等)和病毒性病原(对虾白斑病毒、鲤痘疮病毒等)有重要意义。在给予免疫增强剂的途径中，注射法是最有效的方法，口服法和浸泡法因其使用便捷也有过不少报道，但这两种方法会随着时间的延长而使药效受到影响。过多、过量的服用免疫增强剂会导致机体的免疫抑制。然而，在实际养殖过程中，免疫增强剂造成的负面影响却没有引起人们的足够重视。从总体上来说，免疫增强剂能有效降低水产动物的患病几率，促进机体生长。但我们必须看到它不是对所有疾病都能起到积极的预防效果，因而在使用免疫增强剂的过程中，应在类型、剂量、方法及病理状况等多种因素的综合考虑下，来有效地应用它，为水产养殖业服务。     

A study on the influence of selected Indian herbal active principles on enhancing the immune system in Fenneropenaeus indicus against Vibrio harveyi infection

Five herbs such as Acalypha indica, Hygrophila spinosa, Picrorhiza kurooa, Tinospora cordifolia and Zingiber officinale were selected to screen for the in vitro immunostimulant activity against the shrimp pathogen Vibrio harveyi using different organic polar and non-polar solvents. After initial screening, the best extract of the five herbs was mixed thoroughly in equal proportion and made it an artificial immunostimulant diets (ISD) such as ISD-1(500), ISD-2 (1,000), ISD-3 (1,500) and ISD-4 (2,000) mg?kg^?1. The control diet was prepared without adding immunostimulant herbal extracts. The Indian white shrimp, Fenneropenaeus indicus having the weight of 8.0?±?1.0?g, were fed with the above diets for 60?days. After the completion of feeding trail, they were challenged with V. harveyi at the rate of 10⁷CFU/ml and found out the cumulative mortality, growth parameters, haematological and immunological parameters. The weight gain and specific growth rate were significantly (P?<?0.05) increased from the control group to experimental group. The immunostimulant active principles helped to decrease the coagulation time and improved the total haemocyte count (THC), phagocytosis, phenol oxidase (PO) activity, haemagglutinin activity and bacterial clearance.     

左旋咪唑对中华绒螯蟹非特异性免疫功能及抗病力的影响

为测定在饲料中添加左旋咪唑(LMS)对中华绒螯蟹(Eriocheir sinensis)的免疫调节作用,以0(对照)、100、200和300 mg·kg~(-1)干饲料的剂量将LMS添加于基础饲料中制成颗粒饲料,投喂中华绒螯蟹7 d,然后投喂不含LMS的对照组饲料。在投喂含LMS的饲料之前(0周)和投喂后2、4、6、8周,采样测定中华绒螯蟹的血细胞总量(THC)、不同血细胞数量(DHC)、吞噬活性、呼吸爆发(超氧阴离子的释放)、酚氧化酶(PO)活性和溶菌酶(LSZ)活性;并在投喂含LMS的饲料后的第4周,按1.2×10~7cfu·kg~(-1)体重的剂量,体腔注射接种中华绒螯蟹致病性嗜水气单胞菌(Aeromonas hyrophila)CL99920菌株,记录接种10d后中华绒螯蟹的累积死亡率。结果显示,各LMS处理组的血细胞总量(THC)、透明细胞(HC)数量、吞噬百分率、呼吸爆发、PO活性和LSZ活性均显著地高于对照组(P<0.05);颗粒细胞(GC)数量、血细胞吞噬指数与对照组无显著差异(P>0.05);LMS处理组的蟹对嗜水气单胞菌的抵抗力明显增强。研究表明,饲喂适量的LMS可增强中华绒螯蟹的免疫力和抗病力;在本试验条件下,200 mg·kg~(-1)干饲料的剂量为最适添加剂量。     

Enhancement of innate immune system,survival and yield in Penaeus monodon reared in ponds using Streptococcus phocae PI80

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of dietary and water supplementation of probiotic Streptococcus phocae PI80 on growth, immune response and feed utilization of tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon in earthen ponds. The probiotic bacterium S. phocae PI80 was cultured in large fermenter (50 L) by adding additional carbon source in the form of molasses and glucose along with yeast extract as nitrogen source to enrich S. phocae PI80 biomass. This enriched S. phocae PI80 was administered to shrimp in feed (6.5 × 10¹³ bacterial cells mL^?1) as well as in pond water (5 L/pond). Shrimp growth performance was significantly improved (P < 0.05) in 120 days culture when the average body weight of treated molasses + yeast extract (MY) (28.41 ± 0.874 g), glucose + yeast extract (GY) (27.013 ± 0.698 g) was significantly higher than control (23.63 ± 0.684 g). Food conversion ratio FCR was also found to be reduced significantly in ponds treated with probiotics when compared with control pond (1.89 ± 0.09). Vibrio and luminescent bacteria were found to be lower in the treatment receiving MY group, and we hypothesize that this may lead to greater shrimp survival. Furthermore, fermentation product of S. phocae PI80 added to pond water and feed additives enhanced the shrimp immune system. The results indicated that total haemocytes count (THC), phenoloxidase (PO) activity, NBT reductase assay and phagocytic activity significantly increased in shrimps treated with S. phocae PI80. Our study demonstrates that administration of S. phocae PI80 in the water and feed at 6.5 × 10¹³ colony‐forming units (CFU) mL^?1 bacterial cells induce immune modulation and enhances the immune ability of P. monodon in pond‐reared shrimp and increased the shrimp production.     

Immunomodulatory effect of prolactin on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) macrophage function

The in vitro and in vivo effect of prolactin (PRL) on kidney macrophages from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) was investigated under the assumption that PRL stimulates immune innate response in mammals. Kidney macrophages were treated two ways: first, cultured in RPMI 1640 medium containing 10, 25, 50 and 100 ng/mL of PRL and second, isolated from a fish with a PRL-injected dose of 100 ng/Kg. Reduced nitro blue tetrazolium (formazan) was used to produce intracellular superoxide anion. Phagocytic activity of PRL was determined in treated cells by optical microscopy observation of phagocytized Congo red-stained yeast. Kidney lysozyme activity was measured in PRL-injected fish. In vitro and in vivo macrophages treated with PRL presented an enhanced superoxide anion production, elevated phagocytic index and increased phagocytic activity. Treated fish showed higher levels of lysozyme activity in the head kidney compared to the control. These results indicate that PRL-stimulated innate immune response in Atlantic salmon and future studies will allow us to assess the possibility of using PRL as an immunostimulant in the Chilean salmon industry.     

Dietary β-Glucan and Nucleotide Effects on Growth,Survival and Immune Responses of Pacific White Shrimp,Litopenaeus vannamei

Effects of dietary supplementation of β-glucans and nucleotides on growth, survival and immune responses of the Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) at a low salinity (5 ppt) were evaluated during a 30 d feeding trial. Final mean weight of shrimp fed nucleotides at 0.5%?was highest and significantly different from those fed the basal diet or diets supplemented with β-glucans. Survival was significantly higher for shrimp fed the diet with 0.2%?β-glucans compared to all other diets and was lowest for shrimp fed the basal diet. Shrimp fed diets containing β-glucans and nucleotides had generally better immune responses than shrimp fed the basal diet with higher total hemocyte count (THC) recorded for shrimp fed 0.2%?β-glucans followed by those fed 0.2%?nucleotides. Shrimp fed diets with 0.2%?and 0.5%?nucleotides and 0.2%?β-glucans had significantly higher respiratory burst values than shrimp fed the basal diet. These results indicated that dietary supplementation of either nucleotides or β-glucans has beneficial effects in improving shrimp performance when cultured at low salinity.     

中国对虾血淋巴凝集素的血凝活性与促噬活性

1999年8月，运用血凝活性测定法分别检测中国对虾血淋巴弹簧集素，血淋巴液、血细胞、肌肉、肠、肝胰腺和甲壳的血凝活力，并运用吖啶橙血细胞吞噬测定法检测血细胞的吞噬活力，同时测定了经注射中国对虾副粘病毒提纯液后血淋巴凝集素血凝活力及血淋巴液抗菌活力、酚氧化酶活力、溶菌活力，结果表明，血淋巴凝集素主要分布在血淋巴液和血细胞中；该凝集素对人（A、B、O型），鸡和兔红细胞及其醛化红细胞的凝集具有一定专一性；对血细胞吞噬异物具有促进功能；注射副粘病毒提纯液后，血淋巴凝集素凝集活力变化和血淋巴液抗菌活力，酚氧化酶活力、溶菌活力变化相一致。     

一种微生物絮团的生化分析及其对对虾免疫力的影响

利用红糖与尿素为碳氮源在自然海水中培养微生物絮团,获得絮团产物,对该产物离心后进行初步的生化分析表明,絮团产物上清液中微生物胞外产物重均分子量为213281Da。絮团沉淀物中多糖含量占29.6%,氨基酸含量占12.6%。将絮团产物按0、0.02、0.1、0.5、2.5%的比例添加至低蛋白饲料中投喂凡纳滨对虾 (Litopenaeus vannamei),14d后分别测定实验对虾血清溶菌活力、抗菌活力和酚氧化酶活力,结果显示在饲料中添加微生物絮团浓度为2.5%的对虾血清中抗菌与溶菌活力最高(P<0.05),添加微生物絮团浓度为0.5%与2.5%的对虾血清中酚氧化酶活力较低蛋白饵料对照组显著提高(P<0.05)。用哈维氏弧菌(Vibrio harveyi)感染实验对虾后,结果显示饵料中添加0.1%微生物絮团产物组对虾的死亡率最低。综合分析认为对虾摄食微生物絮团后,能够显著提高对虾的非特异免疫力,抗微生物感染的能力得到增强。     

Effect of body size and sub-optimal water quality on some hemato-immunological parameters of spotted babylon snail <Emphasis Type="Italic">Babylonia areolata</Emphasis>

Cellular and humoral effectors are imperative for the innate defense mechanisms of invertebrates, including the spotted babylon snail Babylonia areolata, a marine gastropod belonging to the family Buccinidae. In this study, we have investigated the influence of body size [5–8 g (small), 10–12 g (medium) and 15–17 g (large)], and culture waters of varied quality [natural seawater, low salinity, low alkalinity, high total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) and artificial seawater] on some hemato-immunological parameters [total hemocytic counts (THC), hemolymphatic glucose, total protein concentration, phenoloxidase (PO), agglutinating and lysozyme activity] of the snail. Growth performance measures and survival of test snails were also evaluated after rearing them in culture water of varied quality. Body size did not influence most parameters assessed, except that the lysozyme and PO activities of medium and large-size snails were higher than those of the small-size snails. Sub-optimal culture water quality affected hemato-immunological factors, growth and/or survival of the spotted babylon snail. Seawater with low salinity, low alkalinity and a high TAN level caused decreased THC, hemolymphatic glucose, and PO activity; increased lysozyme activity; and clearly retarded growth of the snail. The snails held in artificial seawater could not survive after 4 weeks, suggesting the lack of certain essential factors necessary for their survival.     

Effect of temperature decrease on hemocyte apoptosis of the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei

This study investigated the effect of continuous temperature decrease on hemocyte apoptosis of the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. In the stress group, water temperature decreased from 26 to 17 °C at a rate of 1 °C/h. Shrimp kept at 26 ± 0.5 °C were used as control group. Total hemocyte count (THC), reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, cytoplasmic free-Ca²⁺ (CF-Ca²⁺) concentration, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), apoptotic cell ratio, and caspase-3 activity of L. vannamei hemocytes were determined when water temperature decreased to 23, 20, and 17 °C, respectively. Increased ROS production in hemocytes was observed when water temperature decreased to 20 and 17 °C. Decreased THC and cellular MMP, increased CF-Ca²⁺ concentration, apoptotic cell ratio, and caspase-3 activity were shown when water temperature decreased to 17 °C. These results indicate that water temperature decrease can induce oxidative stress on shrimp hemocytes and then cause mitochondria and caspase-3 mediated hemocyte apoptosis and THC reduction, when water temperature decreased to an unconformable level.     

中华绒螯蟹感染“颤抖病”病毒后血清免疫因子的变化

对中华绒螯蟹进行颤抖病病毒悬液和PBS(对照)注射感染,研究其血清免疫因子抗菌活性(Ua)、溶菌活性(UL)、凝集活性(HA)、酚氧化酶(PO)、过氧化酶(POD)、超氧化物歧化酶(S0D)、酸性磷酸酶(ACP)、碱性磷酸酶(AKP)活性的变化,并对实验的结果进行统计学分析。结果表明,在中华绒螯蟹人工感染颤抖病病毒后,蟹体内的免疫因子发生了明显的变化,血清中Ua、UL活性先是降低,然后上升至高于正常值水平。P0活性先上升然后下降至低于正常值水平,POD、HA、SOD活性逐渐升高至显著水平;ACP及AKP活性则显著下降。     

Evaluation of polyherbal feed supplement (Ban-V) on the enhancement of growth and non-specific immune responses in shrimp Penaeus vannamei

Owing to the growing need for eco-friendly aquaculture, usage of herbal feed supplement receives higher attention. A commercial shrimp feed supplement known as Ban-V is a unique blend of polyherbal extracts that act synergistically with each other to help in improving the immune system, protects hepatopancreas and activates several metabolic pathways for better growth and disease resistance. For that, four supplemental concentrations such as 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 % of Ban-V were used along with commercial shrimp feed, and feed with no supplement (control) were evaluated for 60 days. Results revealed that 2.0% of Ban-V diet fed group showed significantly increased biological performance like (average body weight, average daily growth, feed conversion ratio and survival rate) than control. The tested immunological parameters such as total haemocyte count, oxyhaemocyanin level, phenoloxidase (PO) activity, respiratory burst activity (RB), superoxide dismutase (SOD), lysozyme activity, plasma protein content (PPC) and bactericidal activity were higher in 2.0% test diet fed P. vannamei, when compared to other test and control diet fed shrimp. It is therefore suggested that Ban-V supplementation at a concentration of 2.0% was efficient in stimulating the growth and immunity in shrimp.

     

Effect of yeast polysaccharide on the immune function of juvenile sea cucumber, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Apostichopus japonicus</Emphasis> Selenka under pH stress

In the present study, we evaluated the effect of yeast polysaccharide (YSP) on the immune function of Apostichopus japonicus at different pH levels. Juvenile sea cucumbers were fed artificial feed containing 0.5% YSP. Phagocytic activity and activity of lysozyme (LSZ), acid phosphatase (ACP) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were measured under pH stress after 24 h. The results showed that the phagocytic index, the activity of LSZ and ACP in the intestines increased at pH 10.0, and ACP activity in the body wall decreased. The phagocytic rate and ALP activity in the intestines were not different from the control group. The phagocytic index was also not different from the control group at pH 5.5. The activity of LSZ and ACP in the intestines and the activity of ALP increased, while the activity of ACP in the body wall decreased. The phagocytic rate of YSP group increased and the phagocytic rate of control group decreased. Thus, this study indicated that YSP can modulate the non-specific immunity of A. japonicus, and the reasonable dose of YSP might be used as the immunostimulants in sea cucumbers farming under pH stress.     

Effect of water temperature on the immune response of white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei to Vibrio alginolyticus

White shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei held in 25‰ seawater at 27 °C or 28 °C were injected with TSB-grown Vibrio alginolyticus at 1 × 10⁴ colony-forming units (cfu) shrimp^− 1 or 1 × 10⁵ cfu shrimp^− 1, and then cultivated onward at water temperatures varying from 20 to 34 °C. Over 24–144 h, mortality of V. alginolyticus-injected shrimp held at 34 °C or 32 °C was significantly higher than that of shrimp held at lower temperatures. In a separate experiment, shrimp held in 25‰ seawater at 28 °C and then cultured onward at 20 to 32 °C were examined for immune parameters at 24–96 h. THC, phenoloxidase activity, respiratory burst, and SOD activity decreased significantly at 24 h after transfer to 32 °C. Shrimp held in 25‰ seawater at 27 °C and then cultured onward at 20 to 34 °C showed a significant reduction in phagocytic activity and clearance efficiency for V. alginolyticus at 24 h after transfer to 34 °C. It was concluded that transfer of shrimp from 27 or 28 °C to higher temperatures (32 and 34 °C) reduced their immune capability and decreased resistance to V. alginolyticus infection.