Simulation of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) growth and development under Mediterranean conditions: Model adaptation and evaluation

This study reports the adaptation of a simple and mechanistic crop growth model for faba bean (FAGS) to growing conditions in the Mediterranean region. The FAGS model was originally developed for small-seeded cultivars grown in the temperate zone under non-limiting water and nutrient conditions. In order to account for the effect of drought stress on faba bean growth, a submodel for the simulation of soil water balance has been included in the FAGS model. The enhanced FAGS model was calibrated using data from field experiments with a large-seeded faba bean genotype (ILB 1814) conducted in 1993–1994 and 1994–1995 at ICARDA's Tel Hadya research station in northern Syria. In both seasons, crops were sown on two dates under different water supply levels. The model was capable of predicting the faba bean phenology, leaf area development, biomass production, and grain yield as well as the soil water extraction using daily climatic data, genotype-specific parameters, and soil physical properties. The calibrated faba bean model was tested against independent experimental data from the 1991–1992 and 1992–1993 growing seasons at Tel Hadya and was able to satisfactorily predict grain yield of crops grown under different drought intensities. Limitations of the model and aspects requiring better understanding to improve model predictions are discussed.     

Spatial and temporal distribution of the root system and root nutrient content of an established Miscanthus crop

Although a high biomass yield is obtained from established Miscanthus crops, previous studies have shown that fertilizer requirements are relatively low. As little information on the role of the Miscanthus roots in nutrient acquisition is available, a study was conducted to gather data on the Miscanthus root system and root nutrient content. Therefore in 1992, the root distribution pattern of an established Miscanthus crop was measured in field trials using the trench profile and the auger methods. Also, in 1994/1995, seasonal changes in root length density (RLD) and root nutrient content were monitored three times during the vegetation period.

The trench profile method showed that roots were present to the maximum depth measured of 250 cm. The top soil (0–30 cm) contained 28% of root biomass, while nearly half of the total roots were present in soil layers deeper than 90 cm. Using the auger method, we found that RLD values in the topsoil decreased with increasing distance from the centre of the plants. Below 30 cm, RLD decreased markedly, and differences in root length in the soil between plants were less pronounced. The total root dry weight down to 180 cm tended to increase from May 1994 (10.6 t ha⁻¹) to November 1994 (13.9 t ha⁻¹) and then decreased again until March 1995 (11.5 t ha⁻¹). Nutrient concentrations in the roots decreased with increasing depth. The concentrations of N (0.7–1.4%) and K (0.6–1.2%) were clearly higher than those of P (0.06–0.17%). The mean values for N, P and K contents of the roots of all three sampling dates in 1994/1995 were 109.2 kg N ha⁻¹, 10.6 kg P ha⁻¹ and 92.5 kg K ha⁻¹.

Although our results showed that RLD values for Miscanthus in the topsoil are lower than for annual crops, the greater rooting depth and the higher RLD of Miscanthus in the subsoil mean that nutrient uptake from the subsoil is potentially greater. This enables Miscanthus crops to overcome periods of low nutrient (and water) availability especially during periods of rapid above-ground biomass growth.     

Genotypic Variation in Root Systems of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) across Environments

Root systems of various chickpea genotypes were studied over time and in diverse environments, – varying in soil bulk density, phosphorus (P) levels and moisture regimes. In a pot study comparing a range of chickpea genotypes, ICC 4958 and ICCV 94916‐4 produced higher root length density (RLD) and root dry weight (RDW), which were better expressed under P stress conditions. In two field experiments in soils of intermediate and high soil bulk densities, ICC 4958 also had greater RLD and RDW, particularly under soil moisture stress conditions. The expression of greater rooting ability of ICC 4958 under a wide range of environmental conditions confirms its suitability as a parent for genetically enhancing drought resistance and P acquisition ability. The superiority of ICC 4958 over other genotypes was for root proliferation expressed through RLD. Thus, the variation in RLD can be the most relevant root trait that reflects chickpea's potential for soil moisture or P acquisition.     

Root Distribution of Drought-Resistant Peanut Genotypes in Response to Drought

The ability of a plant to modify its root distribution to exploit deeper stored soil water may be an important mechanism to avoid drought. This study aimed at assessing root distributions, variations in root length density (RLD) and percentage of root distribution, and the relevance of root traits for yield of drought‐resistant peanut genotypes under different available soil water levels. The experiment was conducted in the dry season during the years 2003/04 and 2004/05. Eleven peanut genotypes (ICGV 98300, ICGV 98303, ICGV 98305, ICGV 98308, ICGV 98324, ICGV 98330, ICGV 98348, ICGV 98353, Tainan 9, KK 60‐3 and Tifton‐8) and three soil moisture levels [field capacity (FC), 2/3 available soil water (AW) and 1/3 AW] were laid out in a split‐plot design with four replications. Roots were sampled by a core sampler at 37, 67 and 97 days after sowing (DAS). Root length was determined by a scanner and the WINRHIZO Pro 2004a software. RLD was calculated as the ratio of root length (cm) and soil volume (cm³). Graphical illustration of root distribution was constructed by merging RLD in the first and second soil layers (0–40 cm) as upper roots and pooling RLD at the third, fourth and fifth layers (40–100 cm) as lower roots. Pod yield, biomass and harvest index (HI) were recorded at harvest. A drought tolerance index (DTI) was calculated for each parameter as the ratio of the parameter under stress treatment to that under well‐watered conditions. Variations in RLD in 40 to 100 cm layer (RLD_{40 to 100 cm}) were found under well‐watered conditions, and the peanut genotypes could be readily identified as high, intermediate and low for this trait. Changes in RLD in the 40 to 100 cm soil layer were found at 2/3 AW and were more evident at 1/3 AW. ICGV 98300, ICGV 98303, ICGV 98305, ICGV 98308 and KK 60‐3 were classified as drought responsive as they increased RLD in the deeper subsoil level in response to drought. In general, RLD under drought conditions was not related to biomass production. The ability to maintain the percentage of RLD (DTI for %RLD) was related to pod yield, DTI for pod yield and DTI for HI. ICGV 98300, ICGV 98303, ICGV 98305 exhibited high DTI (RLD_{40 to 100 cm}) which may explain their high pod yield, DTI (PY) and DTI (HI). Based on these observations we classified them as drought‐avoiding genotypes.     

Root and Shoot Development of Phaseolus vulgaris L. (French Beans) as Affected by Soil Moisture and Fertilizer Potassium

The development of an extensive root system enables plants to overcome water stress. However, there is little information on the response of food legumes to soil moisture, especially during early growth, which determines crop establishment. Thus, an experiment was conducted under controlled conditions to identify the effect of soil moisture and fertilizer potassium on root and shoot growth of french beans ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) seedlings. The seedlings were grown in a sand medium under a high and low soil moisture regime and with 0.1, 0.8 or 3.0 mM potassium.
Root lengths, dry weights and numbers of root hairs were greater under low soil moisture conditions. Potassium increased root growth irrespective of soil moisture regimes. The impact of potassium on root length was more pronounced under a high soil moisture regime. In contrast, potassium increased root dry weights and root hairs to a greater extent when plants were grown under dry conditions. The lack of adequate soil moisture increased specific leaf weights, and this phenomenon was reduced by the application of potassium. Shoot:root ratios also showed a similar phenomenon. The development of an extensive root system by french bean seedlings under dry conditions to extract a greater quantity of available soil moisture fur establishment and plant growth and the ability of potassium to promote this phenomenon is presented in this study.     

高海拔旱作农业区地膜种植蚕豆增产效应分析

为探讨旱作农业区地膜覆盖种植技术对蚕豆的增产效应,采用对比法进行了试验.结果表明：地膜覆盖后明显改善了耕作层的土壤温度和土壤湿度,平均土壤温度提高了2.4℃,土壤湿度提高了14.1％,有利于旱作农业区蚕豆的出苗,也加快了生育进程约7d;地膜覆盖种植蚕豆后,株高、干物质积累明显提高,成熟期干物质积累增加了148.14％;单株英数、单株粒数、单株产量分别提高了121.7％、87.4％、90.4％,产量增加23.55％.     

Soil‐Based Vegetation Technique to Quantify Effects of Rhizospheric Soil Osmotic and Matric Water Potentials on Crop Salt Tolerance

In saline soils, plant water supply is the most critical growth factor. To better understand water supply and growth of soil‐grown crops, research should focus on root water uptake in saline soils. Plant water supply and growth is complex. One has to consider, simultaneously, soil and plant parameters: (i) the soil physical parameters texture; pF curve; osmotic, matric and total water potential; salinity at the soil/root interface; and bulk soil salinity; and (ii) the plant parameters root mass and rooting density; root morphology; transpiration; and shoot growth. Technical devices for direct and simultaneous measurement of all parameters are not yet available. This study presents a vegetation technique (VeTe) that permits to determinate required data from continuous measurement of pot water losses and by indirect calculation. The VeTe was tested using young rape (Brassica napus, cv. Lingot) as the model plant, growing in a silty soil. Rape was selected for its efficient root system to explore soil determined growth factors. Basically, the VeTe requires two vegetation phases: a pre‐cultivation phase, and an experimental phase. The objective of the first phase is to grow young plants that are homogenous in their shoot and root development through well‐controlled water management. Varying rooting densities of soils are performed when plants are pre‐cultivated in different soil volumes. The experimental phase starts when plants are irrigated with water of different salt concentrations up to soil water contents of 30 vol.%. During the experiment, plants were grown under well‐controlled, climatic conditions, and pot water losses were measured bi‐hourly. Measurement of continuous water losses serves to calculate soil moisture contents, derive osmotic and matric heads and their impact on plant transpiration. The proposed technique provides a means for quantitatively studying the combined impacts of soil osmotic and matric stresses on water uptake by crops differing in their root morphologic traits at different rooting densities.     

山西中北部春玉米生长季土壤水分动态及对产量的影响

为了掌握土壤水分与玉米生长发育内在关系,提高土壤水分利用率,统筹调配水资源和防灾减灾提供理论依据,利用1994—2010年山西省忻州市忻府区农业气象观测站春玉米生长季0~50 cm土壤水分和玉米产量观测资料,分析了玉米生长季土壤水分变化规律及对玉米产量的影响。结果表明：春玉米生长季土壤水分年际变化振荡明显,呈多波动变化,与年降水量相关显著;一年中土壤水分变化分为水分消耗期、水分补给期和水分平稳期3个阶段;土壤水分的垂直变化明显,在20~30 cm层含水量最大,0~20 cm为多变层,20~50 cm为缓变层,雨季土壤水分变化较干季复杂;玉米拔节—乳熟期土壤贮水量与气候产量呈正相关,抽雄期是需水临界期,此时0~50 cm土壤贮水量每增加10 mm,产量增加200~250 kg/hm²。     

Effects of Interactions of Moisture Regime and Nutrient Addition on Nodulation and Carbon Partitioning in Two Cultivars of Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Major limitations of bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) production in arid and semiarid regions are lack of moisture and low soil fertility. An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of soil moisture and N : P : K (20 : 10 : 10) fertilizer on root and shoot growth of two cultivars of bean: cv. Carioca, an indeterminate Brazilian landrace, and cv. Prince, a determinate cultivar grown in Europe. Carioca appears generally stress-tolerant while Prince is intolerant. Seedlings were grown in pots of non-sterile soil at 30, 60 or 90 % field capacity (FC), and given 0, 0.1 or 1 g (kg soil)^–1 of compound fertilizer. The soil contained a population of effective Rhizobium . Growth of both cultivars was greatest in the high moisture and high nutrient treatments. Root fractions were highest at low nutrient supply; the effect of water was not significant. Leaf fraction decreased as root fraction increased. Numbers of nodules were highest at high and intermediate moisture when no fertilizer was applied. Numbers were lowest at 30 % FC and at the highest fertilizer rate. Masses of nodules and fractions followed the same pattern. Decreasing water regime reduced the relative growth rate (RGR) of Prince, while Carioca maintained high RGR at unfavourable conditions of water and nutrients. Net assimilation rates (NAR) were unaffected by nutrient addition, and reduced by low moisture regime. Water use efficiencies (WUEs) were reduced by water stress but increased by nutrient deficiency. The water utilization for dry matter production was optimal at 60 % FC.     

Response of Root Branching and Shoot Water Potentials of French Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) to Soil Moisture and Fertilizer Potassium

Extensive branching patterns of roots and the maintenance of adequate water within shoots enables plants to overcome water stress. However, information on the relationship between fertilizer potassium, root branching patterns and shoot water potentials of food legumes grown under different soil moisture regimes is scarce. Thus, an experiment was conducted in a phytotron to ascertain the effect of fertilizer potassium on root branching patterns and shoot water potentials of a popular tropical food legumes (Frenchbeans Phaseolus vulgaris L). The plants were grown in a sand medium with 0.1, 0.8 or 3.0 mM of potassium under a suboptimal and optima) soil moisture regime.
Root lengths and dry weights were enhanced by potassium, especially under a suboptimal soil moisture regime. The branching patterns changed due to potassium, where the numbers of second and third order roots increased under both soil moisture regimes, although the impact was greater in plants grown with low soil moisture. Plant water contents measured in terms of shoot water potential, relative water contents, rurgid weight: dry weight ratio and water uptake capacity were also increased by potassium. A positive relationship was observed between root branching patterns and water potentials with increasing potassium levels especially in plants grown under suboptimal soil moisture conditions. Shoot growth and nodulation was also promoted by potassium. The ability of plants to develop a more extensive branching pattern of roots by inducing a greater number of second and third order roots and changing the root branching habit from a herringbone to a dichotomous type to maintain a greater shoot water potential especially under low soil moisture regimes is presented.     

Effect of Shading on Nodule Growth and Sugar Distrihution in Faha Bean (Vicia Faba L.)

The faba bean ( Vicia faba L.) is an important grain legume world wide, yet the relationship between light intensity and nodule development and N₂ fixation has received minimal attention. An experiment was conducted to study the effects of shading on faba bean growth, seed yield, nodule development, and the distribution of total N and total sugar among plant parts. Seeds of the V. faba cultivar Xichang Dabai were sown in pots at Xichang. China, in 1986–90. The plants subjected to 50 % and 20 % shading for 145 d had thinner and taller main stem than the control, and fewer flowers, pods, and seeds. Poor dry weight of organs and less developed underground parts were recognized. Shading caused the deficiency of photosynthate (supply), subsequently less nodules formed poorer fresh weight of nodules was produced and nodule senescing advanced. Total N and total sugar contents per plant and in roots, stems and leaves were consistently lower under shading regimes, but the contents in nodules did not change significantly. It seems that the insufficient photosynthate supply limited both N and C metabolism in shading plants by first limiting growth of the whole plant and nodule, and that the lower total N content in faba bean plant under shading regime was attributed to an decreased effective nodule mass and advanced nodule senescing.     

宁南旱区苜蓿草地土壤水分消耗规律及粮草轮作土壤水分恢复效应研究

对宁南旱区不同生长年限紫花苜蓿草地土壤水分消耗及粮草轮作水分恢复效应进行了研究。结果表明:(1)随着苜蓿生长年限延长,在1￣6年内苜蓿草地土壤湿度下降迅速,产草量逐年上升,7年后土壤湿度下降趋于平缓,但苜蓿产草量下降迅速,表明苜蓿生长强烈耗水引起深层土壤干燥化,导致苜蓿生长逐渐衰败,苜蓿平均降水生产效率逐年下降;(2)苜蓿草地土壤垂直剖面可分为降水入渗恢复层(0￣200cm)、根系发达枯竭层(200￣500cm)和根系衰老缓耗层(500cm以下)三个层次。随苜蓿生长年限延长,苜蓿剖面的主要土壤干层逐渐上移,并且干层厚度呈现减小趋势;(3)耕翻的苜蓿茬后轮作粮食作物的年份越长,土壤水分恢复越好,实行草粮轮作的苜蓿最迟不超过生长的第10年。     

Simulation of wheat growth using the 3D root architecture model SPACSYS: Validation and sensitivity analysis

SPACSYS, a model of C and N cycling in the soil–plant–atmosphere continuum that incorporates a detailed three-dimensional root growth sub-model, was tested for its ability to predict the growth and root length density (RLD) distribution of winter wheat. The root growth sub-model was parameterized using published or unpublished data for wheat and barley, and validated against an independent data-set from field experiments on wheat in the UK published in 1978. The model reproduced the experimental results well, accurately simulating total above-ground (r = 0.98) and root (r = 0.96) biomass. There was a slight tendency to over estimate root biomass before the start of stem extension and the rate of root loss after anthesis, suggesting that the partitioning coefficient for dry matter between shoot and root system overwinter and the rate of root mortality and the root decay constant after anthesis may require some adjustment. Simulations of rooting depth and RLD distribution over the season were also acceptable. Further simulation work investigated the sensitivity of root length and relative distribution in the soil profile to changes in specific root morphological traits. The total length of the root system was sensitive to changes in traits regulating the number of lateral branches a given root order can produce (the inter-branch distance, the maximum length of root and its apical non-branching distance) and the elongation rate of main axes. The distribution of the root system was most sensitive to the maximum elongation rate of main axes and their initial growth trajectory. The model will have applications in guiding the design of root system ideotypes for improved water and nutrient use efficiency and for investigating their effectiveness under a range of soil conditions and crop management regimes.     

N2-Fixierung und Ertragsstruktur der Weißen Lupine (Lupinus albus L.) im Vergleich zu Vicia faba L. und Glycine max (L.) Merr. auf verschiedenen Standorten

N₂-Fixation and Yield Structure of White Lupin ( Lupinus albus L.) in Comparison to Vicia faba L. and Glycine max (L.) Merr. on Different Sites
In field studies white lupin ( Lupinus albus L., Eldo ) was compared with faba bean ( Vicia faba L., Herz Freya ) in 1986 and soybean ( Glycine max [L.] Merr., Gambit ) in 1988 on five sites respectively. Total N₂-fixation, which was determined by the extended difference method, and yield components were correlated to weather and soil conditions:
1. While faba bean responded to low pH with delayed nodulation, white lupin showed no decrease in N₂-fixation at pH less than 5.5 as far as soil was not calcareous.
2. The white lupin developed its root system most quickly into further soil depths and produced a root dry weight six times as large as that of faba bean in the soil layer 60-90 cm until the end of July (Bayreuth).
3. Despite on the calcareous sites the white lupin showed the highest total-N₂-fixation (max. 36 g N/m²) throughout, the N-gain for the succeeding crop was up to 8 g N/m² for white lupin and faba bean as well. In contrast the N-balance of soybean was mostly negative.
4. Seed yields of white lupin (48-450 g/m²) ranged between those of faba bean (145-549 g/m²) and of soybean (89-290 g/m²); its raw protein yields were the highest found (max. 158 g/m²) though.     

不同土地利用方式下土壤水分动态及对降水的响应——以青海省互助县浅山旱地为例

摸清青海旱作农业区土壤水分动态变化对保障农作物产量形成和粮食生产安全具有重要意义。采用野外采样结合统计学方法,探究青海互助浅山旱地不同土地利用方式下土壤水分季节动态、垂直剖面特征及土壤水分对降水的响应。结果表明：（1）不同土地利用方式下耕作层(0~30 cm)土壤含水量季节动态存在明显的干湿周期变化,土地利用方式对土壤水分季节变化影响不显著(P>0.05),降水事件、降水量级是影响耕作层(0~30 cm)土壤含水量季节动态的主导驱动力;（2）0~30 cm土层是雨养耕作层,典型土壤含水期分为干旱期、湿润期、常态期和过渡期,土壤干旱发生一般由表层开始,随着土壤水分耗损加重土壤干旱逐渐向深层土壤延伸;（3）4种土地利用方式的土壤水分动态变化与前期累计降水量变化基本一致,亚表层(10~20 cm)和深层(20~30 cm)土壤含水量与前期累计降水量极显著相关性(P<0.01)。因此,在干旱事件频繁的青海旱作区发展“浅埋滴灌技术”是寻求土壤供水平衡的有效路径。     

Assessment tool for biological nitrogen fixation of Vicia faba cultivated as spring main crop

Published data on experiments with faba bean were used to develop a software tool for estimating the amount of nitrogen fixed (separately in grains and harvest residues) and the percentage of total nitrogen derived from the atmosphere (%Ndfa) from a minimum input data set of soil parameters (soil texture or, if available, soil yield potential, mineral nitrogen at the time of seeding, soil pH) and water supply during the period of growth. The tool is applicable for cropping situations in Central and Western Europe, where faba bean is grown as a spring crop. It is designed either for an assessment after the harvest of the crop (grain yield known) or for anticipating the nitrogen amounts resulting from cropping situations in the future (grain yield unknown). For the latter case a rough yield estimate is included. A comparison of estimated values of fixed nitrogen (t ha⁻¹) and percentage of nitrogen derived from the atmosphere (%Ndfa) with data from the literature yielded coefficients of determination (r²) of 0.53 for the amount of fixed nitrogen and 0.29–0.63, depending on the used dataset, for %Ndfa.     

Studies on Sowing Depth for Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), Faba Bean(Vicia faba L.) and Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik) in a Mediterranean-type Environment of South-western Australia

Pulses such as chickpea, faba bean and lentil have hypogeal emergence and their cotyledons remain where the seed is sown, while only the shoot emerges from the soil surface. The effect of three sowing depths (2.5, 5 and 10 cm) on the growth and yield of these pulses was studied at three locations across three seasons in the cropping regions of south-western Australia, with a Mediterranean-type environment. There was no effect of sowing depth on crop phenology, nodulation or dry matter production for any species. Mean seed yields across sites ranged from 810 to 2073 kg ha⁻¹ for chickpea, 817–3381 kg ha⁻¹ for faba bean, and 1173–2024 kg ha⁻¹ for lentil. In general, deep sowing did not reduce seed yields, and in some instances, seed yield was greater at the deeper sowings for chickpea and faba bean. We conclude that the optimum sowing depth for chickpea and faba bean is 5–8 cm, and for lentil 4–6 cm. Sowing at depth may also improve crop establishment where moisture from summer and autumn rainfall is stored in the subsoil below 5 cm, by reducing damage from herbicides applied immediately before or after sowing, and by improving the survival of Rhizobium inoculated on the seed due to more favourable soil conditions at depth.     

Soya Bean (Glycine max L. Merr.) Genotype Response to Early-season Flooding: I. Root and Nodule Development

Soya bean is often grown in regions subject to periodic flooding, with the rooting zone most affected by flooding due to its proximity to the source of stress. Our objectives were to examine the effects of flooding soya bean on its primary roots, adventitious roots and root nodules, and to determine relationships between root morphological changes and early‐season flood tolerance. The experiment was conducted in Belle Glade, FL with 11 soya bean genotypes subjected to (i) no flood, (ii) 2‐week flood 21–35 days after sowing (DAS) or (iii) 4‐week flood 21–49 DAS. All plants were harvested 49 DAS. Flooding reduced soya bean primary root weight, length and volume across genotypes. Adventitious root length and volume were greater in the 4‐week than the 2‐week flood. Soya bean nodule dry weight was threefold higher in the non‐flooded treatments. Genotypic differences in root development and tolerance to flooding were noted, with early‐season flood tolerance correlated with primary root dry weight, length and surface area, and adventitious root dry weight. However, there was no correlation between this study's early‐season root development and late‐season flood tolerance based on seed yield from previous studies. Our results indicate that full season trials may be necessary to identify flood‐tolerant soya bean germplasm.     

水分调控对冬小麦根系与叶片生理特性及产量和品质的影响

采用管栽试验研究了水分调控技术对冬小麦根系和叶片生理特性的调控效应,结合田间试验的产量和品质表现进行综合分析。结果表明,各处理根系主要分布在0～40 cm范围内,约占总根量的50%;在底墒条件充足的情况下,不浇越冬水,适期控水有利于根系的下扎,1水和2水处理灌浆期根系的增加主要表现在100～200 cm土层;在小麦生育期控越冬水、浇灌浆水可以提高根系活力,灌浆水的投入使100～200 cm土层根系在灌浆期仍然保持较高活力,同时提高了旗叶光合速率,保持了旗叶和倒二叶的绿叶面积,有利于小麦籽粒质量增加。因此,通过适期调控水分供应,重视拔节水和灌浆水的投入,不仅利于小麦良好群体结构的形成、促进籽粒产量的提高,还可以有效节约水资源,同时产生较好的产量效应和生态效益。对于强筋小麦来说,减少灌水次数,还可以提高籽粒品质。