Pathogenic and immunogenic responses in turkeys following in ovo exposure to avian metapneumovirus subtype C

Commercial turkey eggs, free of antibodies to avian metapneumovirus subtype C (aMPV/C), were inoculated with aMPV/C at embryonation day (ED) 24. There was no detectable effect of virus inoculation on the hatchability of eggs. At 4 days post inoculation (DPI) (the day of hatch (ED 28)) and 9 DPI (5 days after hatch), virus replication was detected by quantitative RT-PCR in the turbinate, trachea and lung but not in the thymus or spleen. Mild histological lesions characterized by lymphoid cell infiltration were evident in the turbinate mucosa. Virus exposure inhibited the mitogenic response of splenocytes and thymocytes and upregulated gene expression of IFN-γ and IL-10 in the turbinate tissue. Turkeys hatching from virus-exposed eggs had aMPV/C-specific IgG in the serum and the lachrymal fluid. At 3 week of age, in ovo immunized turkeys were protected against a challenge with pathogenic aMPV/C.     

B亚型禽偏肺病毒的分离鉴定及致病性研究

旨在确定我国部分养鸡场的鸡出现甩头、精神萎靡和肿头综合征是否由禽偏肺病毒（aMPV）引起,本研究从山东、福建、黑龙江等地的发病蛋鸡和肉鸡场采集鼻甲骨、气管和肺等样品,首先利用aMPV特异性的RT-PCR方法对临床样品进行初步检测,将RT-PCR检测阳性样品接种Vero细胞进行病毒分离,然后利用G/F基因序列分析及间接免疫荧光试验（IFA）等鉴定病毒的亚型,最后将分离株感染SPF鸡进行致病性分析。结果显示：在采集的220份样品中,RT-PCR检测结果显示,有3份鼻甲骨样品在228 bp左右出现特异性条带,将阳性病料接种Vero细胞盲传5代后,细胞出现变圆、聚集和融合等aMPV特征性细胞病变（CPE）,表明成功分离到3株aMPV,将其分别命名为SD2001、SD2002和HLJ2101。G和F基因同源性分析显示,来自蛋鸡的SD2001、SD2002和来自肉鸡的HLJ2101分离株的G和F基因与其他B亚型aMPV毒株的核苷酸和氨基酸序列相似性均较高,核苷酸的相似性分别为93.4%～98.6%和95.6%～100.0%,氨基酸的相似性分别为88.7%～97.8%和97.6%～100.0%;而与A、C和D亚型的G和F基因同源性较低,核苷酸的相似性分别为27.1%～61.8%和66.8%～74.8%,氨基酸的相似性分别为16.1%～36.7%和72.5%～86.5%,这些结果表明,SD2001、SD2002和HLJ2101分离株属于B亚型aMPV。进一步利用B亚型aMPV特异性的阳性血清进行IFA检测,接种SD2001、SD2002和HLJ2101的Vero细胞均可以观察到特异性的绿色荧光信号,进一步证实3个分离株属于B亚型aMPV。选择SD2001感染3周龄SPF鸡进行了致病性研究,结果发现SPF鸡感染后3～6 d出现精神萎靡、甩头和流鼻涕等症状,鼻甲骨、气管和肺也出现病理性损伤,其发病率为90%（18/20）。3株B亚型aMPV的分离不仅有助于明确我国部分养鸡场出现肿头综合征的发病原因,同时也证实B亚型aMPV流行毒株对鸡有明显的致病性,这些结果为我国家禽疫病的诊断和有效防控提供了重要理论依据。     

B-cell infiltration in the respiratory mucosa of turkeys exposed to subtype C avian metapneumovirus

Turkeys exposed to avian metapneumovirus (aMPV) subtype C showed extensive lymphoid cell infiltrations in the nasal turbinates of the upper respiratory tract. The cellular infiltration occurred after the first virus exposure but not after re-exposure. Quantitation of the relative proportions of mucosal immunoglobulin (Ig)A+, IgG+, and IgM+ cells in controls and virus-exposed turkeys revealed that at 7 days after the first virus exposure, when mucosal infiltration was well pronounced, there was a significant increase (P < 0.05) in the numbers of infiltrating IgA+ but not of IgG+ and IgM+ cells. After the second virus exposure, although the overall numbers of mucosal lymphoid cells were similar in the virus-exposed and control turkeys, the relative proportions of IgA+ and IgG+ cells were significantly higher in the virus-exposed turkeys (P < 0.05) than in controls. Furthermore, elevated levels of aMPV-specific IgA were detected in the nasal secretions and the bile of virus-exposed birds after the second but not after the first virus exposure. These results suggest, for the first time, the possible involvement of local mucosal immunoglobulins in the pathogenesis of aMPV in turkeys.     

Viral antigen distribution in the respiratory tract of cattle persistently infected with bovine viral diarrhea virus subtype 2a

Tissues were obtained at necropsy from the nasal vestibule, turbinates, nasopharynx, trachea, tracheobronchial bifurcation, and lung from each of 10 clinically healthy calves persistently infected (PI) with bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) serotype 2a. Tissues from the nasal vestibule were obtained by biopsy from five additional PI calves. Formalin-fixed tissues were processed for immunohistochemistry to localize the distribution of BVDV throughout the respiratory tract. Antigen distribution and intensity were subjectively evaluated. Throughout the respiratory tract, mononuclear leukocytes, vascular smooth muscle, and endoneural and perineural cells had BVDV immunoreactivity (BVDV-IR). Multifocally, squamous and ciliated columnar epithelium throughout the respiratory tract contained weak to moderate BVDV antigen. Viral antigen was not seen in goblet cells. BVDV-IR in mixed tubuloalveolar glands of the nasal cavity was weak to strong in serous secretory cells and ductular epithelium. Chondrocytes of the concha often contained BVDV antigen diffusely. Nasal mucus-secreting and tracheobronchial glands multifocally contained weak viral signal. In all cases, alveolar macrophages had moderate to strong BVDV-IR, whereas BVDV-IR in alveolar epithelial cells was weak to moderate. BVDV was present in interalveolar leukocytes and mesenchymal cells. Results indicate that serous secretions of the nasal cavity, productive viral infection of epithelium, and infected leukocytes in respiratory secretions are likely major sources of infectious BVDV from PI calves. The presence of BVDV antigen in respiratory epithelium is, at least, indirect support for the notion that this virus predisposes PI cattle to secondary microbial infections.     

Pathogenesis of bovine respiratory syncytial virus in experimentally infected lambs

Twenty-four 6-8-week-old conventionally reared lambs were inoculated intranasally and intratracheally with bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Infected lambs showed mild clinical signs characterized by slight serous nasal discharge, coughing, lachrymation and bronchovascular sounds on the middle part of the lung 5-9 days post-inoculation (PI). Virus was isolated in nasal swabs from 9 of 24 lambs between 3 and 7 days PI. However, virus was recovered from tracheal and lung tissue of all lambs killed between 3 and 11 days PI. Virus-specific antibodies appeared as early 6 days PI but high titres were attained 14-21 days PI. Lungs of lambs killed on different days PI had multifocal areas of consolidation. There was an increase of lymphocytes with a T-suppressor cell marker and a decrease in those with a T-helper marker in lung lavages obtained 5 days PI.     

2012年-2015年我国部分地区禽偏肺病毒的分子流行病学分析

为了调查鸡群中禽偏肺病毒（aMPV）的流行情况,本研究从江苏、辽宁、河南、山东、河北等地有肿头症状的鸡群中取其鼻甲骨和鼻黏液进行 RT-PCR 检测,随机选取9株 PCR 阳性产物对其 F 基因进行序列测定与遗传进化分析。结果表明,280份病料中检出阳性样品142份,阳性检出率达50．7％;9个试验毒株之间 F 基因同源性为99．4％～100％,与 B 型 aMPV 代表株的同源性为97．7％～99．9％,而与 A 型、C型和 D 型 aMPV 代表株的同源性为71．9％～79．4％;由遗传进化树可见,这9株 aMPV 均属于 B 型分支。说明我国鸡群中目前存在 aMPV 感染,B 型毒株是优势流行基因型,从而为禽偏肺病毒疫苗的开发提供了流行病学资料。     

In vitro and in vivo characterization of avian reoviruses. III. Host factors affecting virulence and persistence

Three avian reovirus isolates (2177, 2035, and 1733) were used to determine the effect of the age of chickens at inoculation on virus virulence and persistence. Groups of specific-pathogen-free leghorns were inoculated with three different reovirus isolates of different levels of pathogenicity at 1 day, 1 week, 2 weeks, 3 weeks, or 4 weeks of age. Tissues were examined for the presence of virus and lesions at regular intervals until 8 weeks postinoculation (PI) and then again at 22 weeks PI. Isolate 1733, which is highly pathogenic, was reisolated from the thymus, trachea, liver, intestine, cecal tonsils, bursa of Fabricius, gastrocnemius tendon, and white blood cells. Microscopic lesions were observed in some tissues, including the thymus, liver, spleen, bursa of Fabricius, and gastrocnemius tendons, when sampled within a 7-day period following inoculation. This isolate persisted and produced microscopic lesions in the gastrocnemius tendons for as long as 22 weeks PI. The isolates of intermediate pathogenicity (2035) or low pathogenicity (2177) were isolated less frequently and from fewer tissues than isolate 1733. Isolate 2035 could be found in the gastrocnemius tendons as long as 7 weeks PI, whereas isolate 2177 was never isolated from the tendons, nor did it produce any notable gross or microscopic tissue changes. Birds inoculated at age 1 week or older with any of the three reovirus pathotypes were more resistant to infection than 1-day-old inoculates, as evidenced by a decrease in virus reisolations and a concurrent reduction in the severity of lesions in selected tissues.     

Investigation into avian pneumovirus persistence in poults and chicks using cyclosporin A immunosuppression

One-day-old poults or two-week old chicks were infected oculonasally with avian pneumovirus. Cloacal swabs were collected for virus isolation as were selected tissues (Harderian gland, turbinates, trachea, lungs and kidneys) from birds killed at regular intervals up to 33 days post infection (p.i.) for poults, and up to 40 days p. i. for chicks. In an attempt to induce virus re-excretion, the T-cell-suppressor cyclosporin A (CSA) was given for 12 days starting from three weeks p.i. in poults and from four weeks p.i. in chicks. Birds were sampled for virus isolations up to day 12 post CSA treatment. Virus was recovered only up to day nine p.i. in poults, and day five p.i. in chicks during the acute phase of the infection. Despite T-cell suppression, there was no evidence of re-excretion of the virus, and hence no evidence for the persistence of virus in the tissues examined.     

Immunization of turkeys with a DNA vaccine expressing either the F or N gene of avian metapneumovirus

In this study we compared protection by DNA vaccination with the F (pCMV-F) or N (pCMV-N) gene from avian metapneumovirus (aMPV) in turkeys. One-week-old turkey poults received two intramuscular injections 2 wk apart. Birds were challenged with a turkey-embryo-adapted aMPV at 5 wk of age. Birds vaccinated with pCMV-F had decreased clinical signs of disease as well as significantly reduced virus load in tracheal swabs compared with birds vaccinated with pCMV-N or unvaccinated control birds. Serum neutralizing antibodies were significantly higher in birds receiving pCMV-F compared with all other groups. These results indicate that DNA vaccination with the F, but not N, gene of aMPV can induce significant protection against aMPV infection.     

Induction of local and systemic immune reactions following infection of turkeys with avian Metapneumovirus (aMPV) subtypes A and B

Most of the studies regarding the immunopathogenesis of avian Metapneumovirus (aMPV) have been done with subtype C of aMPV. Not much is known about the immunopathogenesis of aMPV subtypes A and B in turkeys. Specifically, local immune reactions have not been investigated yet. We conducted two experiments in commercial turkeys. We investigated local and systemic humoral and cell mediated immune reactions following infection with an attenuated vaccine strain of aMPV subtype B (Experiment I) and virulent strains of aMPV subtypes A and B (Experiment II). Turkeys infected with virulent aMPV strains developed mild respiratory signs while birds inoculated with the attenuated aMPV did not show any clinical signs. Virus neutralizing antibodies were detected locally in tracheal washes and systemically in serum as soon as 5-7 days post aMPV infection (PI) independent of the strain used. Virus neutralizing antibody titres peaked at 7 days PI and then antibody levels declined. The peak of serum ELISA antibody production varied between infected groups and ranged from 14 and 28 days PI. All aMPV strains induced an increase in the percentage of CD4+ T cell populations in spleen and Harderian gland at days 7 or 14 PI. Furthermore, as shown in Experiment I, infection with the attenuated aMPV-B strain stimulated spleen leukocytes to release significantly higher levels of interferons (IFNs), interleukin-6 and nitric oxide in ex vivo culture in comparison to virus-free controls up to 7 days PI (P<0.05). As detected by quantitative real time RT-PCR in Experiment II, infection with virulent aMPV induced an increased IFNgamma expression in the Harderian gland in comparison to virus-free controls. IFNgamma expression in the spleen varied between aMPV strains and days PI. Overall, our study demonstrates that aMPV subtypes A and B infection induced humoral and cell mediated immune reactions comparable to subtype C infections. We observed only temporary stimulation of serum virus neutralizing antibodies and of most of the local immune reactions independent of the aMPV strain used. The temporary character of immune reactions may explain the short duration of protection against challenge following aMPV vaccination in the field.     

Local and systemic immune responses following infection of broiler-type chickens with avian Metapneumovirus subtypes A and B

Infections with avian Metapneumovirus (aMPV) are often associated with swollen head syndrome in meat type chickens. Previous studies in turkeys have demonstrated that local humoral and cell-mediated immunity plays a role in aMPV-infection. Previous experimental and field observations indicated that the susceptibility of broilers and their immune reactions to aMPV may differ from turkeys. In the presented study local and systemic immune reactions of broilers were investigated after experimental infections with subtypes A and B aMPV of turkey origin. Both virus subtypes induced a mild respiratory disease. The recovery from respiratory signs correlated with the induction of local and systemic aMPV virus-neutralizing antibodies, which began to rise at 6 days post infection (dpi), when the peak of clinical signs was observed. In a different manner to the virus neutralizing (VN) and IgG-ELISA serum antibody titres, which showed high levels until the end of the experiments between 24 and 28 dpi, the specific IgA-ELISA and VN-antibody levels in tracheal washes decreased by 10 and 14 dpi, respectively, which may explain the recurring aMPV-infections in the field. Ex vivo cultured spleen cells from aMPV-infected broilers released at 3 and 6 dpi higher levels of IFN-γ after stimulation with Concanavalin A as compared to virus-free birds. In agreement with studies in turkeys, aMPV-infected broilers showed a clear CD4+ T cell accumulation in the Harderian gland (HG) at 6 dpi (P<0.05). In contrast to other investigations in turkeys aMPV-infected broilers showed an increase in the number of CD8alpha+ cells at 6 dpi compared to virus-free birds (P<0.05). The numbers of local B cells in the Harderian gland were not affected by the infection. Both aMPV A and B induced up-regulation of interferon (IFN)-γ mRNA-expression in the nasal turbinates, while in the Harderian gland only aMPV-A induced enhanced IFN-γ expression at 3 dpi. The differences in systemic and local T cell and possibly natural killer cell activity in the HG between turkeys and chickens may explain the differences in aMPV-pathogenesis between these two species.     

Drop of egg production in chickens by experimental infection with an avian metapneumovirus strain PLE8T1 derived from swollen head syndrome and the application to evaluate vaccine

Decreases in egg production and increased incidence of abnormal eggs due to malformation of egg shells were observed in specific pathogen free (SPF) 173-day-old laying hens inoculated intravenously with an avian metapneumovirus (aMPV) strain PLE8T1. This strain was derived from an isolate from broiler birds exhibiting swollen head syndrome (SHS). Some SPF birds inoculated with the virus showed, slight diarrhea without any respiratory symptoms. Thus, the PLE8T1 strain was used as a challenge virus to evaluate efficacy of aMPV vaccines. SPF chickens which received a live attenuated aMPV vaccine (NEMOVAC; Merial) at 7 or 77 days old and an inactivated aMPV vaccine (OVO-4; Merial) at 105 days old were protected against poor egg production caused by the challenge with the PLE8T1 strain. Thus, aMPV, the PLE8T1 strain passaged 22 times after isolation, from birds exhibiting SHS, could induce a drop in egg production in laying hens accompanied by malformation of egg shells. It was suggested that this challenge system could be applied to evaluate the efficacy of aMPV vaccine.     

Pathogenesis of two strains of lion (Panthera leo) morbillivirus in ferrets (Mustela putorius furo)

Canine distemper virus (CDV) was previously considered to have a host range restricted to the canid family. In 1994, the virus was associated with sporadic outbreaks of distemper in captive felids. However, after severe mortality occurred in the Serengeti lions (Panthera leo), attention became focused on the pathogenesis of the virus and a concerted effort was made to identify the virus as CDV or a closely related feline morbillivirus. The present study was designed to explore the susceptibility of ferrets to challenge with two morbilliviruses isolated from lions and the protective effects of a modified-live mink distemper vaccine. Because mortality in ferrets infected with pathogenic CDV approaches 100%, the ferret was selected as a test animal. Two strains of lion morbillivirus were used as a challenge, A92-27/20 (California lion isolate) and A94-11/13 (Serengeti lion isolate). The two strains of lion morbillivirus were antigenically related to CDV (Rockborn strain), and ferrets were susceptible to both of the viruses when inoculated intraperitoneally. The inoculated ferrets were anorectic at 5-6 days postinoculation (PI), exhibited oculonasal discharge at 9-12 days PI, and became moribund at 12-22 days PI. Severe bilateral conjunctivitis was the typical clinical sign. Inclusion bodies characteristic of morbillivirus (eosinophilic, intranuclear, and intracytoplasmic) were distributed in many epithelial cells, including those of the skin, conjunctiva, gallbladder, liver, pancreas, stomach, trachea, lung, urinary bladder, and kidney. Virus was reisolated from selected lung tissues collected at necropsy and identified by CDV-specific immunofluorescence. Ferrets vaccinated with the mink distemper vaccine (Onderstepoort strain) were protected from challenge with the two lion strains, adding further support to the premise that the viruses are closely related to CDV.     

B亚型禽偏肺病毒对SPF鸡的致病性

利用分离的1株B亚型禽偏肺病毒,采用静脉注射和点眼滴鼻两种途径接种SPF鸡,并在接种同时免疫新城疫弱毒疫苗。在攻毒后3、6、9、12、15d,每组随机抽取3只翅下采血,检测血液生化指标,利用血凝和血凝抑制试验检测新城疫HI抗体效价;利用流式细胞术分析外周血CD40／CD8比值,ELISA试剂盒测定血清中IL-2、IFN7的含量;同时观察静脉注射组和点眼滴鼻组鸡的临床症状、剖检病变和病理组织学变化。结果表明,攻毒后9～15d,静脉注射组和点眼滴鼻组外周血CD4＋/CD8＋比值和血清II-2、IFN-γ的含量均显著低于对照组（P〈0．05）,而静脉注射组与点眼滴鼻组间无显著差异（P〉0．05）;静脉注射组和点眼滴鼻组的免疫器官指数低于对照组,但各组间差异不显著（P〉0．05）;各组间新城疫HI抗体水平无显著差异（P〉0．05）;血液生化指标仪谷丙转氨酶（ALT）和谷草转氨酶（AST）在攻毒后显著升高（P〈0．05）,其他指标在各组间无显著差异（P〉0．05）;静脉注射组和点眼滴鼻组在感染后3～10d出现轻微临床症状;病理组织学检测结果显示,静脉注射组和点眼滴鼻组的呼吸道和肝脏病变最明显。综上所述,B亚型禽偏肺病毒感染SPF鸡后,在一段时间内抑制机体细胞免疫,导致免疫机能下降,并引起轻微的组织病变;B亚型禽偏肺病毒通过两种不同的攻毒途径对SPF鸡的致病性无显著差异。