Ethological basis for the evaluation of animal welfare in housing systems for agricultural animals and laboratory animals]

The Swiss Federal Act on Animal Protection (1978) requires the sale of mass-produced housing systems for farm animals to be authorized by the Federal Veterinary Office. Authorization is only granted for housing systems that safeguard the animals' welfare. A concept for the assessment of Animal Welfare has to provide a high forensic value. The capacity of farm animals to adapt to an intensive housing system can be directly examined, whereas the existence and extent of subjective feelings can only be assumed. In our concept the examination focuses on the interaction of individuals with their artificial environment. The main question is whether or not the individuals are able to cope with given nonspecific (e.g. temperature, humidity) and specific (e.g. drinking troughs, behaviour of conspecifics) stimuli in order to reach the immediate (e.g. drinking, make way for) and ultimate (survival, reproduction success) goals. Animals of the same breed are observed in a highly diverse environment in order to determine normal behaviour. Whether behavioural expressions which differ significantly from normal behaviour are adaptive to the restrictive housing conditions is judged by the behaviours' consequences for both, the individuals and the environment. Many studies prove the concept's high forensic value and the authorities prefer conclusions based on this concept to others referring to the animals' motivational and emotional state. However more research has to be done with respect to animal welfare in farm and laboratory animal breeding as well as in the use of laboratory animals for experimental studies.     

The implications of cognitive processes for animal welfare.

In general, codes that have been designed to safeguard the welfare of animals emphasize the importance of providing an environment that will ensure good health and a normal physiological and physical state, that is, they emphasize the animals' physical needs. If mental needs are mentioned, they are always relegated to secondary importance. The argument is put forward here that animal welfare is dependent solely on the cognitive needs of the animals concerned. In general, if these cognitive needs are met, they will protect the animals' physical needs. It is contended that in the few cases in which they do not safeguard the physical needs, it does not matter from a welfare point of view. The human example is given of being ill. It is argued that welfare is only adversely affected when a person feels ill, knows that he or she is ill, or even thinks that he or she is ill, all of which processes are cognitive ones. The implications for welfare of animals possessing certain cognitive abilities are discussed. For example, the extent to which animals are aware of their internal state while performing behavior known to be indicative of so-called states of suffering, such as fear, frustration, and pain, will determine how much they are actually suffering. With careful experimentation it may be possible to determine how negative they feel these states to be. Similarly, the extent to which animals think about items or events absent from their immediate environment will determine how frustrated they are in the absence of the real item or event but in the presence of the cognitive representation.     

American veterinarians' animal welfare limitations

American society is becoming increasingly interested in issues of animal welfare, and the public generally recognizes the need for guidance from experts in the field. Assessing an animal's welfare status requires a determination of the state of both its physical and its psychological well-being. American veterinarians are well trained to assess the physical state of most animals, but they do not receive equivalent training in assessing an animal's psychological state. Therefore, the recognized expertise of the American veterinary profession currently lies only in answering physical welfare questions, not in assessing the psychological (or societal) aspects of animal welfare issues. If American veterinarians wish to be seen as animal welfare experts, then it is critical for the profession to educate its members in assessing the psychological state of animals. Also, if the American Veterinary Medical Association wishes to be considered a leader in the field of animal welfare, it must partner with organizations with expertise in pertinent areas outside of the veterinary medical field to develop appropriate guidelines for American society, including the development of a widely accepted system for defining and determining overall animal welfare. If American veterinarians actively work to improve our strengths and combine them with those of experts in other fields, we can overcome our limitations as animal welfare experts and achieve wider acceptance as an important force for improving animal welfare.     

Animal well-being and animal care

To know how to care for animals, one must understand their needs. Physiologic and safety needs of farm animals are reasonably well fulfilled. Behavioral needs have yet to be determined and used as bases for animal care. The concept of the welfare plateau is important for the design and operation of facilities for agricultural animals. Current issues in the care of farm animals include standard agricultural practices, stockmanship and the human-animal bond, and standards of design for animal-production equipment.     

Animal behavior and animal welfare

The value of behavioral techniques in assessing animal welfare, and in particular assessing the psychological well being of animals, is reviewed. Using cats and horses as examples, 3 behavioral methods are presented: (1) comparison of behavior patterns and time budgets; (2) choice tests; and (3) operant conditioning. The behaviors of intact and declawed cats were compared in order to determine if declawing led to behavioral problems or to a change in personality. Apparently it did not. The behavior of free ranging horses was compared with that of stabled horses. Using two-choice preference tests, the preference of horses for visual contact with other horses and the preference for bedding were determined. Horses show no significant preference for locations from which they can make visual contact with other horses, but they do prefer bedding, especially when lying down. Horses will perform an operant response in order to obtain light in a darkened barn or heat in an outside shed. These same techniques can be used to answer a variety of questions about an animal's motivation for a particular attribute of its environment.     

The relativity of ethical issues in animal agriculture related to different cultures and production conditions

Initiatives to incorporate European animal welfare standards in international trade agreements raise issues of ethical relativism: (1) in the Fulani pastoral system the harsh environmental conditions result in a strong mutual dependency of pastoralists and their animals. Thus, animal ethics is vital to ensure the survival of the pastoral family, framed as ethic of securing survival; (2) the magnitude of human intervention, investigated in the Indian smallholder crop-livestock production system keeping oxen for work, determines the farmer's responsibility for adequate handling of animals. The apt anticruelty ethic prohibits deliberate cruelty to animals and neglect; (3) in intensive animal agriculture, such as intensive poultry and pig production in Thailand, the traditional ethical concept is no longer applicable and a new ethic encoded in law that respects the animals' natures is needed; (4) local moralities, as illustrated with the case of the llama system in the Andean highlands, deserve adequate attention independent of the production system. Therefore, the issue of animal welfare should be regarded relative in the global context and a dialogue between the cultures is encouraged to advance ethical concerns in animal agriculture.     

Results of a national survey of US veterinary college faculty regarding attitudes toward farm animal welfare

OBJECTIVE: To examine attitudes toward farm animal welfare among veterinary college faculty. DESIGN: E-mail survey. STUDY POPULATION: 157 US veterinary college faculty with large animal or food animal emphasis. PROCEDURE: Veterinarians from 27 US veterinary colleges were contacted via e-mail and asked to complete a 7-page survey relating to farm animal welfare issues. Thirty-one percent of those contacted responded. RESULTS: 71% of respondents self-characterized their attitude toward farm animal welfare as "we can use animals for the greater human good but have an obligation to provide for the majority of the animals' physiologic and behavioral needs." An additional 19% of respondents were more concerned about animal welfare than was indicated by that statement, and 10% were less concerned about farm animal welfare than was indicated by that statement. Significant relationships among demographic variables and attitude scores were observed, including more concerned attitudes among females, those with more liberal political views, and those who cited lower religiosity. No relationship between attitude and age was observed. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Veterinary college faculty have the opportunity to impact many stakeholders within the animal agriculture industries (eg, future veterinarians and policy makers looking for a veterinary science perspective). Results indicated that a considerable level of concern toward farm animal welfare is present in this population. Although the process of change may not be rapid, it is likely that the influence of these respondents will factor heavily into enhancing farm animal welfare.     

ASAS Centennial Paper: The future of teaching and research in companion animal biology in departments of animal sciences

Departments of animal sciences must be relevant to a society in which a small number of people can raise almost all the food animal products needed. The declining number of people involved in animal agriculture has decreased enrollment of students interested in food animals in many departments of animal science. However, several departments welcomed students from a diverse background and began research on animals other than food animals. In many states, the undergraduate enrollment is made up primarily of students interested only in companion animals. A benefit of this is that we have recruited new students into animal agriculture and they have gone on to excellent careers. We have a new challenge now: how to maintain and expand the efforts in teaching, research, and outreach of companion animal science. Departments wishing to expand in teaching have examples of successful courses and curricula from other departments. Some departments have expanded their teaching efforts across their own university to teach about pets to a wider audience than their own majors; other departments can follow. In research, a small number of faculty have been able to establish extramurally funded projects on pets, including horses. But it will be difficult for more than a handful of departments to have a serious research effort in dogs, cats, birds, fish, or exotic animals. Departments will have to make a concerted effort to invest in such endeavors; joint ventures with other universities and colleges of veterinary medicine (or medicine) will probably be required. Funding sources for "traditional" efforts in nutrition, reproduction, and physiology are small and inconsistent; however, with the progress of the equine, canine, and feline genome projects, there should be opportunities from federal funding sources aimed at using animal models for human health. In addition, efforts in animal behavior and welfare can be expanded, perhaps with some funding from private foundations or animal-supportive organizations.     

Microbial risks--from animal farming to the food

Microorganisms by far are representing the most important cause for food safety risks. Sources of food contamination are given along the whole food chain. The most frequent causative agents of food infections, Salmonella and Campylobacter, mostly can be found in the animals herds. A real improvement of the situation can only be reached by a strong inclusion of the agricultural area in the programs for repressing the pathogens. Problems in animal health and premortal stress of the slaughter animals cause considerable bacterial translocation processes and increase the consumer risks. Only few publications exist on the influence of the animal farming systems on the development of microbial food risks. The consumer accepts only animal management systems, which meet the demands for animal welfare, economical efficiency and especially the demand for product safety.     

Field disease investigation-A differentiating and integrative approach to problems in animal populations

The economically important diseases of agricultural animals are those that affect groups of animals to result in impaired productivity or mortality. Herd and flock disease result from complex interactions between inciting agents (or other etiologies), and factors such as management systems, nutrition, environment and other contributory causes. For these reasons herd and flock disease problems must be addressed, researched, and taught, in the areas where they occur-on the farm and in the field. For political and educational reasons this needs to be on farms throughout the state or region represented by a veterinary school. Like most studies, this type of study needs to have a multidisciplinary input but these inputs often involve disciplines that are different from those that address clinical disease in individual animals in the veterinary teaching hospital setting. Clinical departments in veterinary schools have not traditionally found funds to support this approach to agricultural animal disease. This talk will discuss the establishment of a conjoint program between the College of Veterinary Medicine and the College of Agriculture at Washington State University (Field Disease Investigation Unit) to address these requirements and its activities over the past 25 years.     

Intensive animal production and its interaction with human society in Sweden

The interaction of intensive animal production with human society depends on the combined effect of the share of agricultural production in the country or province, the density of population, the animal density and the tendency of the town people to demand country areas for vacation activities. The potential infection hazard must be paid attention to. The Swedish experience of intensive animal production and the legislation in connection with this production gives the impression that the disadvantages could be controlled. A main task for the authorities is to lead the producers to a suitable location of new production units. The use of the animal byproduct manure as fertilizer and soil improving agent will be more attractive when the petrological sources of fertilizer are limited.     

Teaching animal welfare in the land grant universities

Colleges and universities have an obligation to teach the basis of animal husbandry and welfare and must prepare students so that they can respond effectively to challenges by proponents of the animal welfare and animal rights movements. Veterinary curricula must now contain formal instruction in professional ethics and humane stewardship of animals for accreditation by the American Veterinary Medical Association. It is helpful if students have an understanding of farm animal behavior, stress physiology and methods of assessing welfare prior to learning about the animal welfare/rights movement's philosophies and issues. A review of early judicial practices, "classical" Judeo-Christian philosophy, the philosophy of Rene Descartes, Jeremy Bentham, Albert Schweitzer, and current philosophers and the entertainment media places the movements in perspective. Students should be familiar with such concepts as the mind-body controversy, equality of suffering, self-awareness or intelligence, and speciesism. After acquiring an appreciation of the basics, a knowledge of the issues facing animal agriculture and the arguments for and against each issue are necessary. Graduates of colleges of agriculture need to realize the potential effects the movements can have and take the initiative to improve the image of animal agriculture.     

Animal welfare, animal rights and agriculture

The past decade has witnessed a major revolution in social concern with animals. Philosophically, this revolution entails a significant revision in traditional ways of conceiving our moral obligations to other creatures. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the social and conceptual basis for what is widely termed "animal rights." The agricultural community has mistakenly tended to dismiss this new thinking as fringe and emotionally based. In actuality, it is a natural extension of earlier social thought. The case of new laws regulating biomedical research illustrates the rapidity of social change in this area, as do recent developments in European regulation of agriculture. The relevance of this new moral thought to what has hitherto been understood purely in economic terms must be assimilated by the American agricultural community before the agricultural community can respond appropriately and non-reactively.     

Definition of animal breeding goals for sustainable production systems

What we do is determined by the way we "view" a complex issue and what sample of issues or events we choose to deal with. In this paper, a model based on a communal, cultural, or people-centered worldview, informed by a subjective epistemology and a holistic ontology, is considered. Definitions and interpretations of sustainable agriculture are reviewed. Common elements in published definitions of sustainable agriculture and animal production among those who seek long-term and equitable solutions for food production are resource efficiency, profitability, productivity, environmental soundness, biodiversity, social viability, and ethical aspects. Possible characteristics of future sustainable production systems and further development are presented. The impact of these characteristics on animal breeding goals is reviewed. The need for long-term biologically, ecologically, and sociologically sound breeding goals is emphasized, because animal breeding determined only by short-term market forces leads to unwanted side effects. Hence, a procedure for defining animal breeding goals with ethical priorities and weighing of market and non-market values is suggested. Implementation of non-market as well as market economic trait values in the aggregate genotype, as suggested, may allow for breeding programs that contribute to sustainable production systems. Examples of breeding goals in salmon, cattle, and pigs are given, and the resulting genetic responses are evaluated with respect to economic profit (or costs) and other criteria of sustainability. Important prerequisites for breeding programs for sustainable production are appropriate governmental policies, awareness of our way of thinking, and a more communal worldview informed by a subjective epistemology and a holistic ontology.     

Legal prerequisites for the establishment and management of animal preserves

Starting from the general provisions of Section 24 federal law concerning nature conservation the essential contents of different provisions of land law about licence of animal preserves are summarized and cleared up. Sectors of priority are the interpretation and exact definition of the term "animal preserve", explanation of special licensing requirements of law concerning protection of animals (housing and feeding must be adequate to standards of conduct; rearing of animals must be competent), and considerations about lawful contents as well as legal investigations of the definitive administrative act.     

Biotechnology: hail to man and animal

There are two basic remarks that must be made about this series of articles on the theme 'Modern biotechnology: a blessing or concern?'. Firstly, it is difficult to define what 'biotechnology' is due to the diversity of techniques employed. Secondly, it is striking how biotechnological techniques may be employed for such a wide variety of goals. In this article, the ethics of using biotechnology within veterinary science and research will be discussed. Aside from its usefulness to humankind, an animal has its own value as a living creature; a fact that we should always take into account. Ethical issues such as the health, welfare and integrity of animals are discussed here in relation to developments in biotechnology. These ethical arguments reveal that biotechnology does not always have a positive impact on animals. This does not necessarily mean that biotechnology should be rejected out of hand, but that it is essential that the purpose for which the animals are being used be adequately justified. In this regard, the veterinarian may play a unique role as the guardian of both animal and human health. The veterinary profession, in all its diversity, is a participant in the development and (future) practical application of biotechnological techniques. Changes in the broader society and within the veterinary profession may continue to play a role in the societal discourse on biotechnology and its practical application, it must actively consider the ethical aspects and consequences of these scientific developments.     

Advances in farm animal transgenesis

The first transgenic livestock were produced in 1985 by microinjection of foreign DNA into zygotic pronuclei. This was the method of choice for more than 20 years, but more efficient protocols are now available, including somatic cell nuclear transfer and lentiviral transgenesis. Typical applications include carcass composition, lactational performance and wool production, as well as enhanced disease resistance and reduced environmental impact. Transgenic farm animal production for biomedical applications has found broad acceptance. In 2006 the European Medicines Agency (EMA) approved commercialization of the first recombinant pharmaceutical protein, antithrombin, produced in the mammary gland of transgenic goats. As the genome sequencing projects for various farm animal species are completed, it has become feasible to perform precise genetic modifications employing the emerging tools of lentiviral vectors, small interfering ribonucleic acids, meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases and transposons. We anticipate that genetic modification of farm animals will be instrumental in meeting global challenges in agricultural production and will open new horizons in biomedicine.     

Educational preparedness of veterinarians for foreign animal diseases

Veterinary medical education in FADs has been and will continue to be critically important if veterinarians are expected to fulfill the profession's primary obligations to society--those of protecting our animals' health, conserving our animal resources, and promoting public health. It is imperative that curricula and instruction in veterinary schools and colleges provide the depth and breadth of knowledge and understanding necessary to prepare all veterinarians, including those in private practice, for their key role in defending against FADs. Development and implementation of governmental and military programs to diagnose, prevent, control, and eradicate FADs will require a dedicated cadre of public sector veterinarians who have a solid educational foundation in FADs and understand the contemporary issues and global challenges we face. Animal-related industries, associations, and organizations will increasingly rely on well-educated veterinarians to help guide them in ways that will protect animals, clientele, consumers, and trading partners from effects of FADs. Agencies and organizations concerned with conservation of animal resources will require veterinary expertise necessary to prevent FADs in a multitude of animal species, including marine animals, wildlife, endangered species, zoologic specimens, and important genetic lines as well as our domestic companion and livestock species. Species affected by FADs also include human beings for those disease agents with zoonotic potential; thus, veterinary education also plays a key role in public health.     

Poultry welfare: Science or subjectivity?

1. Most people in the developed world agree on what 'animal welfare' is, although it is impossible to give it a precise scientific definition. 2. The argument is made that animal welfare is all to do with the feelings of animals and not the primary needs that these feeling have evolved to protect. 3. Acceptance of subjective feelings as a legitimate subject for scientific investigation has a long and well-established history in science. This acceptance was interrupted by the rise of Behaviorism in the 20th century, but now seems to be re-established. 4. Subjective feelings cannot be studied directly. However, in the animal welfare debate, indirect evidence on feelings is extremely useful, and methods for obtaining this indirect evidence are described. 5. The poultry species are capable of feeling several states of suffering including fear, frustration and pain. A start has been made to elucidate these states and the conditions that cause them, but much remains to be done. Recent evidence suggests that the poultry species may also be capable of experiencing pleasure. 6. It is concluded that, although poultry welfare is all to do with the subjective feelings of the birds, it is possible to be objective and scientific about these feelings. Investigation into poultry welfare, therefore, really is science rather than subjectivity.     

我国动物生产的经济分析

在许多发展中国家,农业是GDP的重要组成部分。草地农业作为现代农业的重要组成部分,其将草地与家畜有机结合,最大限度地合理收获植物和动物产品。草地农业生态系统包含4个生产层,其中动物生产层是重要的生产效益来源。所以动物生产的发展对于我国草地农业意义重大。本文通过对1992年至2011年31个省(市)的动物生产相关数据进行分析,可以得出以下结论:第一,动物生产GDP与农业GDP的比重呈增长趋势。动物生产的发展趋势基本可分为4个阶段,1992至1995年,1996至2004年,2005至2008年,2008至2011年,这与国家出台的各项农业政策有关。第二,从动物生产发展的趋势角度方面,农业大省也是动物生产大省。其他地区由于动物生产对经济发展的贡献小或者动物生产转化的经济效益低,所以动物生产GDP相对小。第三,动物生产增速最快地区大部分为农业大省,这可能是由于粮食生产促进动物生产的发展。第四,动物生产GDP与其他经济指标是相互促进的正相关关系。因资源禀赋及政策的不同,使各个省市情况迥异。综上所述,我国动物生产仍存在许多问题,亟待解决。政府需要充分发挥政策导向作用,大力支持草地农业的发展。