Recovery,survival and dissemination of human enteric viruses in ocean waters receiving sewage in Hawaii

A commercial model of a portable virus concentrator operating on the principle of the membrane virus adsorption-elution technique was used to examine the recovery and distribution of human enteropathogenic viruses in Hawaiian waters receiving sewage wastes. Although operating at an efficiency of 20%, a variety of human enteric viruses was isolated, including polioviruses, Coxsackievirus and Echoviruses. Positive virus isolations were consistently made and at high concentrations at sampling stations closest to the sewage outfall. The frequency of virus isolations decreased with increasing distance from the discharge site. viruses were recovered in all directions from the outfall and even as far as 3.2 km east but not 6.4 km away from the discharge site. Tidal conditions to some degree were found to influence the dissemination of viruses. However, since sampling was generally performed at the surface of the water (0.3 to 0.6 m depth), the influence of winds and surface currents was more difficult to assess. Although a positive correlation was found between the presence of high concentrations of indicator coliforms and viruses in waters closest to the discharge site, this relationship was not seen at sampling stations farther away. At these latter stations, positive virus isolations with corresponding low to negligible coliform counts were made which reaffirmed previous published observations that human enteric viruses are relatively more stable in ocean water than coliform bacteria. Furthermore, the instability of the coliform bacteria consequently affected the fecal coliform/fecal streptococci ratios which thus invalidated the use of such ratios to indicate contamination by human wastes.     

Investigations into the fate of nitrilotriacetic acid in sewage sludge applied to agricultural land

The mobility of nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) in agricultural soil was assessed in a soil/sewage sludge admixture and following surface applications using laboratory scale soil columns. Rates of application were based on the guidelines published by the Department of the Environment (United Kingdom). Nitrilotriacetic acid concentrations were based on expected sewage sludge concentrations were NTA to be introduced as a replacement builder in detergent formulations. Admixtures were found to retain NTA more effectively in the topsoil (0 to 200 mm) than surface applications, with up to 9.5 % of the applied NTA passing through the topsoil following a surface application, when irrigated at average rainfall. Even at higher rates of irrigation a great proportion of the NTA was retained in a soil column containing topsoil and subsoil (200 to 300 mm). The adsorption capacity of the soil was determined in batch experiments and was found to be 17.5 μNTA g^?1 soil.     

Low biodegradability of fluoxetine HCl,diazepam and their human metabolites in sewage sludge-amended soil

Background, aim, and scope

The European Union banned disposal of sewage sludge (SS) at sea in Europe in 1998. Since that time, the application rate of SS to land has risen significantly and is set to rise further. Fifty-two percent of SS was disposed to land in the UK in 2000. Land application is, thus, possibly an important transport route for SS-associated organic chemicals into the environment. There are now over 3,000 different pharmaceutical ingredients in use in the EU and many enter sewage systems. Possibly as a result, the last decade has seen an increase in reports of pharmacologically active compounds in the environment (e.g. in watercourses, open ocean and soils). Surprisingly, there is still a significant lack of knowledge of the transport and fate of pharmaceuticals in the environment, particularly in soils. The present project, therefore, investigated the susceptibility to microbial degradation of the selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor, Prozac® (fluoxetine HCl), and the 1,4-benzodiazepine, Valium® (Diazepam) and their major human metabolites (norfluoxetine HCl, temazepam and oxazepam) in short-term (60 day) bacterial liquid cultures derived from UK SS-amended soil and of fluoxetine HCl in a longer-term (270 day) SS-amended soil culture.

Methodology

Recently developed extraction techniques, including solid phase extraction, allowed all analytes to be isolated from the biodegradation cultures (aqueous and soil matrices), and subsequently analysed using novel high performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization-multistage mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MSⁿ) techniques. Ratio calibration using deuterated internal standards allowed the generation of quantitative data. A simple basified tautomerism experiment was also performed to aid in the identification of a bacterial transformation product. Alongside the biodegradation studies, HPLC-APCI-MSⁿ profiling of bacteriohopanepolyols (BHPs; bacterial membrane marker chemicals) allowed assessment of the microbial community structure in the SS-amended soils.

Results

The pharmaceuticals were found to be resistant to biodegradation in liquid culture studies (60 days), and even after prolonged exposure in SS-amended soil (>200 days; fluoxetine HCl only). Oxazepam was the only 1,4-benzodiazepine studied which underwent biotic transformation (~40%) in liquid culture studies. Evidence to support the theory that the transformation product was a 1,4-benzodiazepine tautomer, is presented. BHP profiles of eight different SS-amended soils suggested that the restricted bacterial community of the soil used as a culture source in these biodegradation studies was typical of SS-amended soils.

Discussion

The lack of substantial degradation of all target analytes except oxazepam under simulated, but realistic, SS-amended soil conditions indicates their likely persistent nature. Although oxazepam did undergo significant biotic (and abiotic) losses, the metabolite formed under biotic influences was hypothesised to be another bioactive 1,4-benzodiazepine (either 2-enol or 3-enol nordiazepam) which is likely to be resistant to further change. The bacterial communities in SS-amended soils may be unable to degrade such compounds.

Recommendations and perspectives

With such pharmaceuticals as tested here, there is a potential for accumulation within environments such as field soil to which SS is regularly added both as a disposal mechanism and as a fertiliser. When compounds undergo accumulation, the risk of transport to other environmental components becomes more likely. From field soils, these may include potential exposure to flora and fauna and possible bioaccumulation or effects on terrestrial organisms and accumulation in plants, including crops grown on the SS-treated soils. The fate and subsequent impact of many pharmaceuticals within the terrestrial environment is still largely unknown and further research is required before the risks, if any, of SS-associated pharmaceuticals can be fully assessed.

     

Nutrient inputs to soils and their uptake by alfalfa through long-term irrigation with untreated sewage effluent in Mexico

Abstract. The effects of long-term waste water irrigation on soil fertility and nutrient supply to alfalfa ( Medicago sativa ) have been investigated in an area near Mexico City Waste water irrigation has improved the nutrient balance of the soil in respect of total nitrogen and available phosphorus. In contrast Na has displaced Ca and diminished the Ca saturation of the soil. In consequence, Ca in alfalfa tissue has decreased and phosphorus and sodium increased after 80 years of waste water irrigation. Estimates of the N-balance suggest that substantial amounts of N are being lost, probably with consequent eutrophication of the groundwater.     

The use of bioassays for evaluating the toxicity of sewage sludge and sewage sludge-amended soil

Background and Aims  

In soils, the most commonly mentioned hazardous substances are metals. One of the sources of its accumulation is the application of sewage sludge. However, little information is available regarding the estimation of the toxicity of sewage sludge or soil treated with sewage sludge, even by means of a battery of bioassays. In this study an evaluation of a battery of bioassays was carried out for toxicity assessment of sewage sludge and sewage sludge-treated soil. The objectives of this study were a) to compare the sensitivity of the different bioassays for the toxicity determination of sewage sludge contaminated with metals and soil treated with this sewage sludge, b) to elaborate a procedure for the attribution of sewage sludge samples to hazard classes based on the ecotoxicological data, and c) to evaluate the suitability of elutriate bioassays and microbial toxicity tests for the assessment of sewage sludge-treated soil.     

Human impacts on soil properties and their implications for the sensitivity of soil systems in Scotland

Human activities have had pronounced impacts on soil properties. Conifer afforestation in the uplands has caused significant decreases in soil pH and in the quality and turnover of organic matter. Acid deposition has increased soil acidity by a similar amount to conifer afforestation but has been shown to affect soils at greater depths. Acid deposition has also increased the mobility of trace metals in the soil and therefore increased metal concentrations in drainage waters. Applications of sewage sludge to the soil have been shown to increase metal concentrations, although most of the Scottish soils affected have high trace metal binding capacities. Intensification of arable cultivation in the lowlands has reduced organic matter concentrations, structural stability and soil workability, and has had effects on soil erodibility. Human trampling, while highly localised, affects sensitive mountain soils in popular areas, leading to loss of surface organic horizons, and therefore, carbon storage. The future impacts of human activities on the soil may be exacerbated by changing climate, and the need to monitor and predict these will not diminish.     

近60年湘江流域水沙特性及其对人类活动的响应

湘江流域人类活动对湘江水沙变化具有显著影响。利用M-K次序法、Pettitt非参数检验法和双累积曲线法分析湘江干支流1953-2014年的年径流量、汛期径流量和非汛期径流量与输沙量的关系,并分析水土保持和水库建设等人类活动与水沙演变的关系。结果表明:1)湘江干支流水文站的年径流量、汛期径流量与输沙量的相关性强,且1990年后湘潭站径流量-输沙量的相关系数为0.83,而非汛期相关性较弱。1990年前,干流站点径流量和输沙量处于波动状态,1990年后干流站点径流量总体呈增加趋势,但输沙量呈减小趋势,且老埠头站的输沙量发生微幅突变。除个别站点之外,支流站点的径流量和输沙量发生突变的年份与变化规律均一致。2)水土保持以及水库建设对湘江流域的拦沙作用是输沙量减少的主要原因。相比支流,水土保持对湘江干流流域的输沙量减少影响更显著,水库建设与湘江干支流输沙量减少均密切相关。3)根据湘江流域输沙量突变点可划分A(1960-1987年)、B(1988-1996年)、C(1997-2013年)3个时期,在不考虑温度变化的影响下,以A时期1960-1987年为基准期,利用累积量斜率变化率比较法可知,相比基准期A时期,B、C时期水土保持和水库拦沙等人类活动对输沙量的减少的贡献率为88.58%和94.01%,人类活动为输沙量减小的主要因素。     

Reaction of sewage farm soils to different irrigation solutions in a column experiment 2. Heavy metals and their leaching

Heavy metal polluted soils from a recent and a former sewage farm were studied in a 2.5 years‐column experiment under various irrigation regimes and/or liming treatment. The copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd) concentrations in the soil and the leaching of these elements were studied. The amounts of the metals leached differed markedly between both soils, however, the effect of various irrigation treatments was less pronounced. The heavy metal content in the soil solid phase depended on the organic carbon content, however these dependencies differed for both soils as well as for particular metals. In lower soil horizons, the amount of heavy metals bound by unit mass of organic carbon was constant. It was assumed that the same amount of the heavy metals can be bound by the unit mass of the DOC. Under this assumption the amount of the DOC in the former sewage farm soil was in general too small to carry all heavy metals leached. Therefore leaching of their cationic forms has been postulated. The amount of the DOC in the present sewage farm soil could carry more heavy metals than these being leached. Therefore, an undersaturation of the DOC in heavy metals could occur in this soil.<?show $6#>     

Women's input into household decisions and their nutritional status in three resource-constrained settings

OBJECTIVE: To understand the role of women's input into household decisions as a possible factor contributing to women's undernutrition in settings where HIV/AIDS and drought have constrained household resources. DESIGN AND SETTING: Three cross-sectional surveys of non-pregnant women in partnerships without a birth in the last 3 months were analysed. Factors associated with chronic energy deficiency (CED), defined as body mass index of<18.5 kg m(-2), were assessed among 1920 women in Zimbabwe, 2870 women in Zambia and 6219 women in Malawi. RESULTS: Prevalence of CED was 4.2% in Zimbabwe, 13.5% in Zambia and 6.7% in Malawi. In Malawi, women with less input into decisions were more likely to have CED. After multivariable adjustment, each additional decision made by the partner increased the odds of CED in Malawi by 1.08 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.02-1.15); each additional decision made by the woman decreased the odds of CED by 0.90 (95% CI 0.88-0.97). Malawian women with all the final say or with partners with no final say had significantly more CED than expected (odds ratio (OR)=2.88, 95% CI 1.42-5.83 and OR=1.64, 95% CI 1.06-2.52, respectively), and removing these points increased the magnitude and significance of the linear trends. In Zambia, the relationship was found for urban women only and no associations were found in Zimbabwe. CONCLUSIONS: Input into household decisions may be a key factor in the cycle of drought and CED. Women with both low input and CED may lose productive capacity, putting them at greater risk of food insecurity and potentially HIV/AIDS in high prevalence settings.     

家畜肠道和粪便甲烷排放研究进展

家畜采食饲料在胃肠道发酵及其排泄粪便在处理贮存过程中会产生甲烷，目前每年的排放量超过全球甲烷排放总量的1／4。甲烷是主要的温室气体，会破坏大气臭氧层。减少家畜肠道和粪便的甲烷产量对提高饲料能量利用率和改善环境具有重要意义。该文在对目前反刍动物甲烷排放影响因素、肠道甲烷排放量和粪便甲烷排放量测定方法等方面的研究现状进行分析的基础上，就如何减少家畜肠道和粪便的甲烷产量提出了自己的看法。     

Tortoises and tourists in the Western Indian ocean: The curieuse experiment

A colony of giant tortoises Geochelone gigantea from Aldabra Atoll was established in 1978 on the island of Curieuse in the granitic Seychelles, where tortoises have long been extinct. Ninety-five were landed in April 1978 and 78 in April 1980. The animals have shown considerable increases in wieght, and the first hatchling was found n February 1980. The main purpose of the colony is to provide a tourist attraction within easy reach of Mahé and deflect tourist pressure from Aldabra: at the same time the colony has considerable scientific potential. The environment and history of Curieuse are reviewed in the light of criteria initially established for the choice of an island for the project, and the future of the experiment is discussed.     

Applied island biogeography and the conservation of endangered island birds in the Indian ocean

There has been much interest and controversy over the application of island biogeographic theory to conservation planning, but few attempts have been made actually to apply theory to specific conservation programmes. This paper demonstrates how island biogeography might play an important role in developing programmes to preserve several endangered island birds on the island of Mauritius. Biogeographic theory suggests that the present avifauna of Mauritius contains an excessive number of species, in view of the much reduced area of forest that exists on the island today. Inter-island transfers of four endangered birds from Mauritius to nearby Réunion Island are proposed and justified by biogeographical and ecological studies.     

Quantification of Aspergillus fumigatus and enteric bacteria in European compost and biochar

Although most potential human pathogens (PHPs) can be inactivated during composting, the risk that such substrates represent for human health remains largely unknown due to the shortage of information on presence and abundance of PHPs in finished composts. This study focused on the assessment of Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC), and the opportunistic fungal pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus in different compost commodities. A total of fifteen European composts, made from different waste types and processes, were evaluated for the occurrence of the selected PHPs using molecular and traditional techniques. The analyses were extended to five biochar because of their growing application in agriculture, horticulture, floriculture, and private gardening.

Enteric bacteria were detected by molecular methods in eight out of fifteen composts; however, viable propagules were confirmed for L. monocytogenes only in two composts, and for STEC in three more composts. No bacterial pathogens were found in biochar. Living A. fumigatus was present in eleven composts and two biochars. None of the eighteen isolates contained single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) relevant for resistance to azole fungicides. The role of compost and biochar as a source of PHPs in the environment and the risk for human health is discussed.     

Soil biochemical activities and the geometric mean of enzyme activities after application of sewage sludge and sewage sludge biochar to soil

There is a need to improve the way in which wastes, such as sewage sludges, are managed and a potential way to proceed would be to transform them into biochar. On the other hand, there is a growing interest in the use of soil biochemical properties as indicators of soil quality because they are sensitive to alterations in soil management. Thus, we have studied the effect of a biochar obtained from sewage sludge on soil biochemical properties in an organic soil using two doses of biochar and comparing these results with the control soil and with soils amended with the same two doses of unpyrolyzed sewage sludge. Microbial biomass C, soil respiration, net N mineralization and several enzyme activities (dehydrogenase, β-glucosidase, phosphomoesterase and arylsulphatase) were monitored. The geometric mean of enzyme activities (GMea) was used as a soil quality index. Individual biochemical properties showed a different response to the treatments, while GMea showed an increase in the quality of soils amended with the high biochar dose and a decrease in those amended with a high sewage sludge dose. The geometric mean of enzyme activities was a suitable index to condense the whole set of soil enzyme values in a single numerical value, which was sensitive to management practices.     

Particle size fractionation and metal distribution in sewage sludges

A sequential step filtration technique has been used to investigate the different particle size fractions of suspended solids in several raw, activated and digested sewage sludge samples. Liquid sludge was passed through filters with progressively smaller pore sizes, from 100 µm down to 0.2 µm. The concentrations of Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn associated with each particle size fraction were also determined. The particle size distributions indicated that there was a greater proportion of larger particles in the raw and activated sludges than in the digested sludges. Generally in activated sludge the metals tended to be associated with the large particles of > 100 µm, whereas in raw and particularly digested sludges the metals were found in the smaller particle size fractions from 20 µm, down to 2.5 µm. Calculating specific associations in terms of mg kg^?1 the 8 to 20 µm range appears important in complexing metals. This was especially evident when comparing the sludges from the same treatment works. Generally distributions were more widespread when results were expressed as mg kg^?1 as opposed to mg L^?1.     

黑龙港蓄污区污水水质监测与评价研究

运用单项指数和综合指数相结合方法,对黑龙港蓄污区污水水质监测与评价结果表明,该水体为严重污染水体,且重金属为最主要污染因子,其中Pb、Cd和Hg超标量高达3~23倍。根据国家农业灌溉水质标准,该水体不宜用于农业灌溉。     

High rates of domestic sewage sludge on a calcareous soil and their effect on wheat growth using a pot experiment

A pot experiment was carried out to explore the use of high loading rates of domestic sewage sludge from Jeresh (Jordan) on a calcareous soil. Sludge was mixed with soil in volume ratios of 1:8, 1:6, 1:4, 1:2, 1:1, 2:1, and 4:1 with the unamended soil as a control. Wheat (Triticum durum L.) was grown in the pots for 60 days. The addition of sludge at a ratio of 1:8 increased wheat growth significantly; 1:6 ratio resulted in better growth than the control, although the increase was not significant at the 5% probability level. Other ratios suppressed wheat growth. The analysis of sludge-soil mixtures indicated that the addition of sludge increased the extractable P, K, Fe, Zn, Mn, and Cu in the mixtures. The addition of sludge to soil increased N and P in wheat tissue to optimum levels, but decreased K content. Iron and Zinc increased in wheat tissue due to the addition of sludge to soil, however Mn and Cu were not much affected.     

The diurnal flux in the dispersion of sewage plant odors

This study used a Gaussian plume dispersion model to analyze the diurnal flux in odors emanating from a sewage treatment facility in Lincoln, Nebraska. For each test day, eight sets of meteorological observations taken every 3 h were utilized in the computations. Input data included both January and July measurements to facilitate seasonal comparisons in the daily flux of odors. The odor problem appeared to be more severe in January when compared to July, and distinctive diurnal patterns were uncovered for both months. The implications of the results are discussed, and suggestions for further research are presented.     

烟草病毒研究现状与展望

简述了烟草病毒主要种类、最新分类地位、鉴定与检测技术、抗病毒基因工程等方面研究进展,并展望了烟草病毒病检测技术、抗病毒制剂研制与开发以及烟草抗病毒基因工程技术等方面研究发展趋势。指出应加强用于烟草病毒诊断与检测的试剂盒研究及开发。