A review of the concept ‘management’ in relation to urban landscapes and green spaces: Toward a holistic understanding

The management of urban landscapes concerns existing urban open spaces such as public parks, playgrounds and residential green spaces. It involves many different actors and organizations and its practice is of importance for the sustainable development of cities. As a research field, it needs further theoretical development and common definitions. For example, the central term ‘management’ is seldom defined in the relevant literature regarding an urban landscape context, and public participation in management processes is unusual. This paper introduces urban landscape management as an overarching concept that brings together knowledge about management of urban landscapes from fields such as urban forestry, park management and landscape planning. Based on a literature review, a common understanding of management in an urban landscape context is proposed, including organizational and strategic aspects of managerial activities. Our approach is that urban landscapes are ultimately managed to provide user benefits. Urban landscape management can be viewed as a complex process that includes a number of different actors, elements and relationships, mutually affecting each other. This view supports future studies of urban landscape management and its role in sustainable urban development.     

Adaptive governance of urban green spaces across Latin America – Insights amid COVID-19

Urban green spaces’ well documented role as a hub for physical and mental health was enhanced by restrictions to mobility issued worldwide as a response to COVID-19. In this context, managers of urban green spaces (UGS) were prompted to provide controlled access under impromptu safety protocols. This unprecedented challenge required planning and operational strengths reflecting flexibility, innovation and learning. These management features are essential for an adaptive governance – an underdeveloped research topic within the study of UGS. Using eighteen semi-structured interviews from six countries, we analyze adaptive governance as reflected by UGS managers’ responses across Latin America – a region where access to UGS is a matter of public health and of environmental justice. We document responses that can be categorized based on the governance arrangement in place. On one hand, both polycentric and dedicated-management governances have been able to learn through piloting ideas, adapting personnel roles and the function of UGS infrastructure, and adjusting their decision-making process. On the other hand, managers within municipal public services areas – the most prevalent governance arrangement across Latin America – report difficulty to adapt – likely due to their dependence on political will, limited autonomy, insufficient budgets, absence of formal paths to self-funding, shortage of technical know-how, and insufficient citizens’ involvement. We discuss implications of UGS adaptive governance in terms of capacity to deal with future public health, climate-related or other types of shocks.     

The green walk—An analysis for evaluating the accessibility of urban green spaces

The importance of urban green spaces in providing ecosystem services to the population is increasingly being recognised by scientists, policy makers and the general public. Across cities, urban planners are seeking to reconcile the location of urban green spaces and accessibility of the public. The main aim of our paper is to assess the accessibility of urban green spaces and to identify perceived benefits along the travel route to urban green spaces, starting from a selected case study in Romania. We started from a spatial analysis of a service area for an urban park in Bucharest (Tineretului). With the help of network analyst in ArcGis Pro we established the boundaries of the service area (using urban park boundaries, street network, traffic restrictions) and applied two methods of travel to the park (walking and cycling). We applied a survey to 202 respondents, collecting information on the routes and methods of reaching the park, as well as the perceived benefits and disservices of selecting the preferred method and route. The main results revealed different patterns delimited by a number of criteria: age (elder population preferred public transport and shaded routes), income (people with higher incomes selected travelling by car and accessing elements with parking facilities), group structure (people with children selected routes perceived as safe). This type of analyses can represent useful instruments for urban planners in developing and managing urban green spaces in close relation with neighbouring spaces and facilities.     

Rethinking urban green spaces for urban resilience. Do green spaces need adaptation to meet public post-covid expectations?

Based on a social preference survey performed in Warsaw, we assessed the preferences toward alterations in urban green spaces (UGS) that should take place to ensure safe recreation. We identified how peoples’ personal characteristics are linked to the preferred changes to formulate recommendations for alterations addressing post-covid challenges while keeping the resident’s preferences in mind. We used 1–7 scorings of images of different types of urban landscapes, which we photomanipulated to represent varying levels of crowding, followed by questions regarding recreational behaviour, anxiety towards COVID and preferred changes. Various urban landscapes were, on average, comparably suitable for recreation, only highly urbanized landscapes receiving lower scorings. The respondents declared that vegetation density and overall share of vegetation were of the highest importance in assessing images and claimed that crowding had little effect on their preferences. Those statements were inverse to their choices when assessing recreational preferences based on images: the presence of people in all cases decreased assessment of the scenery. There was a clear respondents’ need for more wild and cultivated vegetation and more places for spending time in UGS. Any repressive actions by distancing people spatially in UGS, isolating seniors or introducing entry limits did not meet social approval. We also identified two major behavioural patterns: people who were primarily driven by fear of COVID-19, visiting green spaces closer to their homes and having less need for UGS alterations. The second group was those frequently visiting UGS who did not reveal fear of COVID-19, those who did not favour wide paths or the importance of UGS located nearby, and opted for more wilderness. These two approaches to recreation are likely to persist after the pandemic, which supports the need to increase UGS diversity.     

Influences on the use of urban green space – A case study in Odense,Denmark

Increasing the use of urban green space has appeared on the political agenda, primarily because increased use is expected to improve the health and well-being of the urban population. Green space is contributing to restoring mental fatigue, serving as a resource for physical activity, reducing mortality and reducing the level of stress.However, knowledge and experience on how to implement this agenda are scarce. In this paper, we use a socio-ecological model as framework when studying influences on the use of respondents’ nearest urban green space in the Danish city of Odense. Data were obtained from a survey sent to 2500 randomly selected adult residents within the central part of the city. We tested the relative importance of different factors on the frequency of use of the nearest urban green space by using a multivariate logistic regression model. The results show that almost half of the respondents did not use their nearest green space the most. Whether or not respondent used their nearest green space most depends primarily on area size, distance to the area and factors that are likely to express a reduced mobility; old age, young children and poor health.If the nearest urban green space also is the most used green space, having a dog is the only factor that significantly increases the frequency of use. Further research is needed to determine what it is that makes people use an area more, if the basic conditions of a reasonable size (>5 ha) within a reasonable distance (<600 m) are fulfilled.     

Perceived personal safety in relation to urban woodland vegetation – A review

Urban woodland vegetation provides people with many aesthetic, ecological and psychological benefits, but can also generate problems concerning people's perception of safety. This paper reviews existing knowledge about perceived personal safety in relation to vegetation, particularly woodland vegetation, in urban green spaces such as parks and residential areas. Individual and social factors, but also vegetation character, maintenance and design, proved to be important for perceived personal safety. Vegetation-related aspects identified as being of particular importance include landscape design, possibilities for overview and control, vegetation density, and vegetation character and maintenance. Vegetation of an open character with low density undergrowth might have positive effects on perceived personal safety without reducing other benefits. Issues for future research include context-based studies to consider several aspects of vegetation and their interactions.     

Citizens’ use of public urban green spaces at the time of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy

Since early 2020, Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has spread rapidly, quickly becoming a global pandemic. To counter the COVID-19 outbreak, national governments have issued different measures and restrictions, forcing citizens to adapt to a whole new lifestyle. These restrictions have impacted on the use of green spaces by citizens owing to many factors: more available free time, increased flexibility in the work environment, and a need to relax in Nature to relieve anxiety and stress. Urban green spaces provide many benefits for the physical and psychological well-being of citizens (e.g., habitat conservation, pollution control, recreational and leisure opportunities). To understand if citizens’ habits have changed due to the COVID-19 restrictions, this study provides insights from a web-based survey monitoring the use of such spaces before and during the COVID-19 lockdowns in Italy. A web-based questionnaire was conducted via “Facebook Messenger” and “WhatsApp” at the end of the second wave of COVID-19 (May–June 2021). Data collection having been concluded, 1075 completed questionnaires were collected and processed. The results show that while many reduced their weekly frequentation of green areas (−16.5%), the number of people frequenting green areas near their home every day increased (+7.7%). Two main groups of people were identified: the first, those who intensified their visits to green areas being those who desired to spend time in contact with Nature; the second, those who were reluctant to visit green areas for fear of being infected. The results also show most of the respondents felt urban green areas were either very important (82.1%) or important (14.4%). Overall, the results reveal that COVID-19 induced a positive perception of the benefits provided by urban green areas, with a consequent greater use of them, which seems destined to last even once the public health emergency has passed.     

Synergy of urban green space planning and ecosystem services provision: A longitudinal exploration of China’s development

Ecosystem services (ES) concepts and approaches have become more appealing to practice, such as municipal/urban planning, environmental policies and governance to address sustainable development. Inclusion of this concept in the planning or policy discourses is the first step for further implementation on the ground. Using China’s capital, Beijing, as the case study, this article analyzes how ES (or similar concepts) have permeated China’s urban development history since 1949 when the New China was established and how this has to be with China’s urban green space development. The results show: (1) There were no explicit references to “ecosystem services” per se, but overlapping concepts such as “functions”, “values” and “benefits” can be found in planning documents and, importantly, the lack of the concept per se has not affected the detailed services that emerged in all plans. (2) Among the three ES sections, only cultural services run from the beginning to end although the included services kept changing. Other sections show considerable variation and less continuity – the focal services of each stage changed over time. (3) Through the ES lens, some general patterns regarding China’s urban development can be found such as regulation services gradually become valued for their own sake. The patterns found in Chinese planning documents are then compared with some western regions. This study reveals limitations of the past and opportunities for the future to inform urban development decision-making. Adaptation of old and incorporating new ES concepts can improve the quality of plans and foster cities’ ability to learn from past patterns for future sustainability.     

Heat tolerance of urban trees − A review

The frequency and intensity of heat stress events globally have increased over the past 20 years. Climatic modeling predicts that this trend will continue throughout the 21st century, with the global land area experiencing heat waves doubling by 2020 and quadrupling by 2040. Due to the reflective nature of buildings and infrastructure, heat temperatures tend to be higher within urban landscapes than outlying rural areas. Heat stress influences processes from the molecular level to whole-tree biology. At the leaf level, photosynthesis is reduced, photo-oxidative stress increases, premature leaf abscission occurs, and the growth of leaves decreases. Growth decreases at the whole tree level, and biomass allocation between roots, shoots, leaves, and branches is altered. When drought and heat stress are combined, detrimental effects are considerably enhanced and, without irrigation, can quickly lead to tree death. There have been few studies regarding the heat tolerance of urban tree species. However, there is evidence of genetic variation in heat tolerance between and within species within forestry, which could be essential to exploit for urban trees. Understanding the mechanisms of tree physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses to extreme heat events is also necessary for understanding how urban tree species will be affected by climate change.     

Assessment and optimization of green space for urban transformation in resources-based city – A case study of Lengshuijiang city,China

Urbanization in China has changed gradually from production-oriented to consumption-oriented in recent years. Comfort and accessibility of green infrastructures effect the rate of urbanization and transformation. A well designed urban green space system is an essential part of the urbanization process. In this paper, the urban green space of Lengshuijiang city was assessed both qualitatively and quantitatively using data of field survey and high resolution remote sensing. In the study area, green space coverage was 37.14%, green space percentage was 33.45% and per capita park green space was 16.25 m². The high green space coverage suggested that there were ample potentials for further urban transformation. Within a 30 min service radius of existing green space, total service area was 204.49 ha, which accounted for 16.26% of the study area. A high proportion of the green space was made up of urban parks which were unevenly distributed across the study area. A green space optimization strategy, aimed at improving green space quality and accessibility, was proposed. After optimization, total service areas within the 30 min service radius will increase to 492 ha (39.12%), an increase of 22.86%. Our study demonstrated that combining qualitative and quantitative methods is an effective and reliable way for green space assessment and reliable and can be used for urban green space planning and management for small resource-based cities like Lengshuijiang in its process of urban transformation.     

How is quality of urban green spaces associated with physical activity and health?

This study investigates the associations between quality of urban green spaces (UGS), self-reported physical activity (PA), and health indicators in Aydın, Turkey. Data was collected through a survey with 420 participants. The associations between quality of UGS, self-reported frequency and duration of PA, and stress, mental health, and physical health were examined with multivariate linear regression while controlling for confounding factors. Results showed that nearest distance to UGS and quality of UGS (i.e. maintenance and cleanliness) were associated with increased frequency of PA. Higher frequency of PA was related to less stress and better mental health and longer duration of PA was associated with better physical health. In addition, large and open/visible UGS were associated with better physical health. The findings also showed that stress mediates the relationship between PA and mental health. Results suggest that providing large, visible as well as clean and well-maintained UGS close to people's homes may be an effective strategy to improve PA and people's health.     

Too hot to handle? On the cooling capacity of urban green spaces in a Neotropical Mexican city

Urban areas are particularly vulnerable to climate change due to the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect, which can be mitigated by urban vegetation through shading and evapotranspiration. Nevertheless, there is still a lack of spatially explicit information on the cooling capacity of green infrastructure for most Latin American cities. In this study, we employed Land Surface Temperature (LST) of the Neotropical Mexican city of Xalapa to (1) analyze its Surface UHI (SUHI) compared to its peri and extra-urban areas, (2) to assess the cooling capacity of urban green spaces larger than 1 ha, and (3) to evaluate the role of green spaces’ size, shape and their surrounding tree cover percentage (Tc) on green spaces cooling range. We evaluated the cooling range of green spaces and their relationships with green spaces metrics and Tc via a linear mixed-effect model and identified threshold values for the variables at 25 m, 50 m, 100 m, and 200 m from the borders of green spaces through Classification and Regression Trees. Xalapa exhibits a SUHI of 1.70 °C compared to its peri-urban area and 4.95 °C to the extra-urban area. Green spaces > 2 ha mitigated heat at ~2 °C and the cooling range was influenced by the size of green spaces ≥ 2.8 ha and Tc > 21% at 50 m and only by Tc surrounding the green spaces at 100 m and 200 m. This shows that the size threshold of urban green spaces should be complemented with the presence of Tc starting at least 50 m to maximize the cooling capacity provided by the green infrastructure. Planning agendas should account for the interaction between the size of green spaces and the cumulative cooling effect of scattered vegetation inside urban areas towards compact green cities to cope with urban warming.     

‘Just green enough’ in urban renewal: A multifunctional and pragmatic approach in realizing multiscale urban green space optimization in built-up residential areas

Urban green spaces (UGSs) play an essential role in sustainable urban development and are closely related to public health and human well-being. Previous studies seldom consider the relationships between spatial patterns and equity for the heterogeneity of built-up residential types in the city, not to mention how to place the pragmatic design strategies to explore green injustice for vulnerable neighborhoods. To address this gap, our study adopts a cascade of three methodological stages: 1) applying an urban morphological spatial pattern analysis (MSPA) to compare urban UGS patterns and the UGS-adapted Gini coefficient to measure the spatial equity of UGS distributions in three local built-up areas, 2) employing the minimum cumulative resistance (MCR) model to determine the location of the newly added UGSs and adopting the ‘just green enough’ strategy into the redistribution of UGSs for the marginal neighborhood and at the same time to avoid inequality associated with green gentrification, and 3) exploring an integrated design and implementation method for the newly added UGSs that can accommodate both normal conditions and the possibility of future pandemics. The results indicate that there is a strong correlation between socioeconomic status and the distributional justice of UGSs among built-up types, while disadvantaged people living in the densest residential neighborhoods have lower UGS provisions. This paper demonstrates a multifunctional and pragmatic approach for realizing multiscale UGS optimization by exploring it at the subdivision and neighborhood scales. This implication can also help guide decision-makers and planners to understand the complex interplay between social vulnerabilities, gentrification, and urban greening, thus formulating effective policies and hands-on strategies to address green injustice that are not only crucial for this study region but also of great significance for developing countries in the Global South.     

Malaysians’ perception on the contribution of urban green spaces to the UN sustainable development goals

There are only few studies globally that have documented the linkages between urban green spaces (UGS) and sustainable development goals (SDGs). In Malaysia, there is no existing research evaluating the relationship between UGS and SDGs. In this study, we assessed Malaysians’ perception on the association between UGS and seven selected SDGs, building on existing studies that looked at importance of UGS with regards to biodiversity, health, and wellbeing outcomes in Malaysia. Using an online survey of 645 respondents across Malaysia, we tested two hypotheses: H1) perception of SDGs varies by socio-demographic factors and H2) perception of SDGs is moderated by distance to green spaces. A pre-tested structured online questionnaire was administered using a 5-point Likert scale. The data was then analysed using analysis of variance and ordinary least squares. Results show that there is an overall statistically significant difference (p < 0.001) between the sociodemographic variables and the positive perceptions of seven selected SDGs. Several sociodemographic factors (female, younger age, university education, closer to UGS, physical activities in UGS) had positive and significant relationship between UGS and SDGs perception. However, proximity to UGS did not moderate the effect of demographic factors on the attitude towards the SDGs. As Malaysia is becoming a rapidly urbanized country, we suggest developing small green spaces (e. g. pocket parks) in the vicinity of housing areas so that people will have easy access and perform physical activities for their wellbeing. At the same time these green spaces will ultimately contribute to achieving other SDGs in urban areas.     

The domestic garden – Its contribution to urban green infrastructure

Domestic gardens provide a significant component of urban green infrastructure but their relative contribution to eco-system service provision remains largely un-quantified. ‘Green infrastructure’ itself is often ill-defined, posing problems for planners to ascertain what types of green infrastructure provide greatest benefit and under what circumstances. Within this context the relative merits of gardens are unclear; however, at a time of greater urbanization where private gardens are increasingly seen as a ‘luxury’, it is important to define their role precisely. Hence, the nature of this review is to interpret existing information pertaining to gardens/gardening per se, identify where they may have a unique role to play and to highlight where further research is warranted. The review suggests that there are significant differences in both form and management of domestic gardens which radically influence the benefits. Nevertheless, gardens can play a strong role in improving the environmental impact of the domestic curtilage, e.g. by insulating houses against temperature extremes they can reduce domestic energy use. Gardens also improve localized air cooling, help mitigate flooding and provide a haven for wildlife. Less favourable aspects include contributions of gardens and gardening to greenhouse gas emissions, misuse of fertilizers and pesticides, and introduction of alien plant species. Due to the close proximity to the home and hence accessibility for many, possibly the greatest benefit of the domestic garden is on human health and well-being, but further work is required to define this clearly within the wider context of green infrastructure.     

How did the COVID-19 pandemic impact urban green spaces? A multi-scale assessment of Jeddah megacity (Saudi Arabia)

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic emerged as a global public health threat. In this crisis period, urban parks provided multiple ecosystem services and direct/indirect benefits to mental and physical health. However, the use patterns, attitudes, and perceptions of urban park visitors remained unexplored in Saudi cities. This study aimed to find out the use patterns, attitudes, and perceptions of people regarding urban parks during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the findings were compared with non-pandemic periods. Two urban parks (Al Masarah Garden and Al Jamaa Garden) in Jeddah megacity (Saudi Arabia) were assessed, and 215 respondents were surveyed to fulfil the objectives of the study. The study applied a questionnaire survey and field observations to understand the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the use patterns, attitudes, and perceptions of urban park visitors. Non-parametric tests (Kruskal–Wallis and Mann–Whitney tests) were performed to find out the impact of sociodemographic factors (such as age, gender, and education). From the results, it was found that the COVID-19 pandemic had a substantial impact on the use, attitudes, and perceptions of urban parks in comparison with non-pandemic periods. The number of park visitors decreased during the COVID-19 pandemic, but urban parks were crucial to people’s mental and physical well-being. The findings of this study may help to understand the importance of urban parks as green spaces and to implement measures to enhance the quality and quantity of urban green spaces in Saudi cities.     

Hopping on one leg – The challenge of ecosystem disservices for urban green management

The importance of ecosystem services for human well-being has been highlighted by several recent environmental studies and assessments. These assessments provide useful information for urban green management, but they largely exclude various nuisances and losses produced by ecosystem functions. Lack of attention to these ecosystem disservices may seriously hamper environmental management in general and urban green management in particular. Ecological, social and technological changes will affect both what kind of disservices will emerge and how they will be experienced and managed. Especially in urban areas, environmental, social and technological changes spanning from global to local levels are continuously altering urban ecosystems. Our ways of perceiving and valuing ecosystem functions are also undergoing rapid change. Here we discuss the concept of ecosystem disservices from the perspective of northern European urban ecosystems. It is concluded that perceptions about ecosystem disservices have an increasing influence on how urban green areas are experienced, valued, used, managed and developed.     

Residents’ place attachment to urban green spaces in Greater Tokyo region: An empirical assessment of dimensionality and influencing socio-demographic factors

Although many researchers highlight the benefits of Urban Green Spaces (UGS) to city dwellers, understanding of residents’ emotional association with UGS remains an incomplete and exciting area of place research. In this study, we conducted an empirical assessment of residents’ Place Attachment (PA) towards UGS in the Greater Tokyo region. For this, we tested a widely used PA model consisting of four dimensions, namely, place identity, place dependence, social, and nature bonding. Data were collected from an online questionnaire survey (n = 2093) and subjected to an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) to examine the underlying place dimensions. To examine the association of PA with socio-demographic variables, we performed a multiple regression analysis with the factor scores and key socio-economic variables (e.g. age, gender, income, marital and parental status, etc.). Additionally, we compared the PA constructs among three different groups, namely (1) men and women, (2) married and unmarried, and (3) people with and without children. Results indicated a three-dimensional PA model, consisting of ‘place identity’, ‘place and nature dependence’, and ‘social bonding’. In particular, variables originally used for nature bonding co-loaded with the variables for place dependence. The other tested dimensions, nonetheless, remained identical with conventional PA models. The finding indicates that personal connections to nature - as hypothesized in the nature-bonding dimension - may not be truly replicable for UGS. As such, the influence of demographic variables on the overall place-construct remains minimal, although a significant but relatively weak positive influence was observed for age and frequency of green space visits. In the comparative analysis, women reported a significantly higher-level place and nature dependence. Besides, a significant difference of mean was observed among married and unmarried respondents, as well as the persons with/without children for all three-place dimensions. Overall, the findings are imperative to better understand the human-green space relationship in large cities and call for further directed research on creating ‘green places’ and not just ‘green spaces’.     

Seed dispersal in urban green space – Does the rook Corvus frugilegus L. contribute to urban flora homogenization?

The role of human-independent dispersal vectors in the structuring of urban flora is hardly known. Our goal was to evaluate the role and scale of endozoochorous seed dispersal mediated by the rook into habitats located in 11 cities of eastern Poland. This bird is a frequent user of anthropogenic food sources: agricultural fields (outside the cities) and garbage cans and refuse dumps (inside the cities). We wanted to: (i) assess the seed pool dispersed by the rook during wintering, when the bird forms huge winter roosts in the centre of cities, and (ii) evaluate if the rook-mediated dispersal may cause homogenization of vegetation at the sites where seeds were deposited. We found 2257 seeds belonging to 60 taxa in 1008 regurgitation pellets; the proportion of archaeophytes in pellets was significantly higher than in vegetation under roosts and it was negatively correlated with city size. On the basis of the Jaccard index we can conclude that the dispersed seed pool is more homogenous than stabilized vegetation in sites where pellets were deposited, but because of the high participation of weeds and ruderal species in pellets, the bird can facilitate the transfer of these groups of species into the cities. Plant and animal dispersers interactions should be further studied and taken into consideration during the planning and management of urban green space, which is claimed to be the most important habitat type for conservation of biodiversity within modern cities. It is especially important in the case of abundant animals forming huge concentrations in the urban landscape because of their high potential impact on vegetation composition at the local scale.     

Mapping of urban roadside trees – A case study in the tree register update process in Helsinki City

This case study describes a method for utilizing leaf-off airborne laser scanning (ALS) data for mapping characteristics of urban trees. ALS data were utilized to detect and update all street trees in the tree inventory of the City of Helsinki, Finland. The inventory consists of roughly 20,000 street trees with mean diameter at breast height (DBH) of 24 cm and mean height of 10.6 m. The large number of trees makes the manual updating process very laborious. The automatic mapping procedure presented in this paper detected 88.8% of all trees in the inventory. Tree height was predicted with root mean square error (RMSE) of 1.27 meters and tree DBH with RMSE of 6.9 cm. The presented method provides a practical and cost–effective tool for the mapping of urban tree characteristics. The cost–efficiency was further enhanced because the used ALS data were originally collected for other urban planning purposes.