Assessing whether dairy cow welfare is “better” in pasture-based than in confinement-based management systems

ABSTRACT

Consumers perceive pasture-based systems of milk production as natural and therefore better for cow welfare than confinement systems. However both systems are heterogeneous and continually evolving, varying from total confinement to total pasture with many hybrid intermediaries. To compare the welfare of dairy cows in these various systems, we use the three spheres framework, comprising biological functioning, natural behaviour and affective states. Considering biological functioning, pasture-based cows are less at risk of subclinical and clinical mastitis, claw lesions, lameness, metritis, early embryonic mortality, culling and mortality, but at more risk of internal parasitism, malnutrition and delayed onset of oestrous activity postpartum than confined cows. Regarding natural behaviours, pasture-based cows exhibit less agonistic behaviour, better lying behaviour, more normal oestrous behaviours and better synchronicity of behaviours than confined cows. They also have the opportunity to graze, which is one of the main features of the behavioural repertoire of dairy cows, but, they may also experience long periods away from pasture in larger herds, and severe climatic stresses which will become increasingly important as the climate changes. Our current ability to assess the affective state of dairy cows is poor. For example, hunger is an important subjective state that cannot be measured directly. The growing focus on ensuring that animals have lives worth living, means that dairy cows should garner some positive emotions from their lives, and it seems clear that pasture access is essential for this. Clearly measurement of affective state is an important challenge for future dairy cow welfare research. At the extremes of management systems, there can be major differences in animal welfare but in hybrid systems, dairy cows experience elements of both confinement and pasture which may ameliorate the negative effects of each on cow welfare. Ultimately, the optimal system gives cows an element of choice between both environments. Moreover management of the system, whether it is confinement or pastured-based, may be as important as the system of management in ensuring good dairy cow welfare and addressing societal concerns.

Abbreviations: BCS: Body condition score; TMR: Total mixed ration     

牛乳酪蛋白基因多态性研究进展

牛乳被称为"白色血液",是最理想的天然食品之一,富含蛋白质、乳脂、钙、维生素和人体必需的8种氨基酸,也被称为"接近完美的食品".但我国的牛乳多用于液态乳的加工,其营养价值未得到充分利用.酪蛋白基因多态性被认为会影响乳产量、乳的理化特性和营养成分、乳制品加工特性以及营养价值,因此得到学者们的重视.本文对现有研究中关于酪蛋...     

奶牛抗换料应激的研究

奶牛的换料应激对奶牛产业带来经济损失，通过从营养、育种改良、饲养管理以及饲料等方面去缓解应激，其中营养调控是减少换料应激的有效途径之一。在奶牛更换饲料出现应激情况下，通过营养调控，可以有效降低换料应激对奶牛产奶量的影响，保证牧场奶牛养殖的经济效益。     

Veterinary dairy herd health management in Europe: constraints and perspectives

The nature of veterinary work in dairy health management in Europe has changed over the past years and will change even more dramatically in the near future. The consumers and the media show increasing concern about animal welfare, safety of products of animal origin and traceability of animal products. Farmers in Europe have to produce under strict, often expensive and laborious regulations, while still commercially competing with farmers outside the EU and not subject to the same rules. Veterinarians should adapt their knowledge and skills to the new challenges and developments of the dairy sector. Dairy farmers nowadays ask for support in areas that go beyond clinical activities: environmental protection, welfare, nutrition, grassland management, economics and business management. Bovine practitioners should be able to advise in many different areas and subjects--that is the challenge to our profession. Veterinary education with regards to cattle health management should start with individual animal clinical work, which constitutes the basis of herd health advisory programmes. The bovine practitioner should then look beyond that and regard the herd as the unit. Each diseased cow or group of cows should be detected early enough to avoid financial losses or such losses should be prevented altogether by detecting and managing risk factors contributing to disease occurrence. Herd health and production management programmes represent the first level to optimise dairy farm performance. Expansions to that should further be considered, comprising both animal health and welfare issues, as well as food safety and public health issues. The latter could be addressed by quality risk management programmes following the HACCP-principles. Cattle veterinarians should follow recent developments and invest in new skills and knowledge in order to maintain their usefulness to the modern dairy farmer. Finally we are convinced that the cattle practitioner should evolve into this direction, otherwise the veterinarian as we know him will miss the train in the next years.     

Antimicrobial stewardship in the dairy industry: responding to the threat of antimicrobial resistance

Dairy Australia is the national service body for the Australian dairy industry. Its role is to help farmers adapt to a changing operating environment and achieve a profitable, sustainable dairy industry. Although the use of antibiotics in Australian agriculture is relatively low in global terms, Dairy Australia recognises important drivers for continuous improvement in antimicrobial stewardship (AMS). Dairy Australia’s first strategic priority is to support profitable farms. This priority has driven the development of a range of on‐farm change management programs in the animal health and welfare fields to optimise the unit cost of production and dairy cattle welfare. Dairy Australia’s third strategic priority is to further develop a ‘trusted dairy industry’. Previous and current work under these two strategies position the dairy industry favourably with respect to confronting the challenge of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and supporting sound AMS with the guiding principle of ‘as little as possible, as much as necessary’. However, given an incomplete but ongoing threat of AMR, more work is needed. Supported by Dairy Australia, the dairy industry has developed an antimicrobial use strategy aligning with the Australian Animal Sector National AMR Plan 2018.     

Dairy farmers' attitudes and intentions towards improving dairy cow foot health

Dairy cow foot health is a subject of concern because it is considered to be the most important welfare problem in dairy farming and causes economic losses for the farmer. In order to improve dairy cow foot health it is important to take into account the attitude and intention of dairy farmers. In our study the objective was to gain insight into the attitude and intention of dairy farmers to take action to improve dairy cow foot health and determine drivers and barriers to take action, using the Theory of Planned Behavior. Five hundred Dutch dairy farmers were selected randomly and were invited by email to fill in an online questionnaire. The questionnaire included questions about respondents' intentions, attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control and was extended with questions about personal normative beliefs. With information from such a framework, solution strategies for the improvement of dairy cow foot health can be proposed. The results showed that almost 70% of the dairy farmers had an intention to take action to improve dairy cow foot health. Most important drivers seem to be the achievement of better foot health with cost-effective measures. Possible barriers to taking action were labor efficiency and a long interval between taking action and seeing an improvement in dairy cow foot health. The feed advisor and foot trimmer seemed to have most influence on intentions to take action to improve dairy cow foot health. Most farmers seemed to be satisfied with the foot health status at their farm, which probably weakens the intention for foot health improvement, especially compared to other issues which farmers experience as more urgent. Subclinical foot disorders (where cows are not visibly lame) were not valued as important with respect to animal welfare. Furthermore, 25% of the respondents did not believe cows could suffer pain. Animal welfare, especially the provision of good care for the cows, was valued as important but was not related to intention to improve dairy cow foot health. The cost-effectiveness of measures seemed to be more important. Providing more information on the effects of taking intervention measures might stimulate farmers to take action to achieve improvement in dairy cow foot health.     

高产奶牛福利

近20年，荷斯坦牛成为优势奶牛品种，营养改善促使奶牛产奶量大幅度增加，工厂化管理致使奶牛运动量减少、生产性疾病频发，奶牛康乐受到严重威胁，因此，改善高产奶牛福利的呼声高涨。本文以生产性疾患为中心，从规模化生产、遗传改良、畜舍环境等角度讨论了高产奶牛的福利问题。     

奶牛摄食行为学在营养性管理中的有效应用

将奶牛摄食行为学应用于奶牛营养性生产管理是提高其临床健康、福利和经济效益的有效方法。首先对奶牛正常行为特征及平均每日行为活动所占时间的分布进行了总结,随后讨论了奶牛饲养中现实条件及管理操作(如:竞争性环境,牛群密度、分组方案等)对其采食行为产生影响;并对利用摄食行为预测围产期疾病的最新研究成果进行了阐述和探讨。相关学者及饲养人员在科研生产中需更有效地利用摄食行为学相关知识,以促进奶牛健康,提高奶牛福利及实际生产效益。建议今后在营养学相关领域的研究能进一步地深入了解奶牛的摄食行为,并加以合理应用,从而满足生产的需要。     

Mastitis diagnostics and performance monitoring: a practical approach

In this paper a review is given of frequently used mastitis diagnostic methods in modern dairy practice. Methods used at the quarter, cow, herd and regional or national level are discussed, including their usability for performance monitoring in udder health. Future developments, such as systems in which milk-derived parameters are combined with modern analytical techniques, are discussed. It is concluded that, although much knowledge is available and science is still developing and much knowledge is available, it is not always fully exploited in practice.     

Ruminant Nutrition Symposium: Optimizing Performance of the Offspring: nourishing and managing the dam and postnatal calf for optimal lactation, reproduction, and immunity

For several mammalian species, it has been shown that fetal and early postnatal nutrition has a role in long-term lipid and glucose metabolism of the offspring, and it thus also may have consequences on milk yield in the dairy cow. For instance, high-energy diets during the last weeks of pregnancy may result in increased glycemia, which in turn, may alter fetal adipose tissue development. However, most research efforts on management and nutrition of dry cows have focused on minimizing metabolic disorders of the postpartum cow without devoting much attention to potential consequences for the offspring. Similarly, nutritional needs for proper placental development and early fetal growth have received little attention, despite the fact that alterations in placental and fetal development may alter expression of genes participating in homeorhesis of the offspring. Therefore, nutrition of the pregnant cow, both while lactating and dry, should also consider aspects of placental and fetal development that may affect health and performance of the progeny. Similarly, newborn calves and young heifers are fed to ensure a particular growth target without compromising mammary development, although data linking postnatal growth targets with future milk yield are scarce. However, milk yield not only depends on mammary development, but also on nutrient partitioning, which is regulated by the endocrine milieu. There are some periods of time during development where nutrition may have long-lasting effects on metabolic function and milk production. For instance, the first months of postnatal life seem to be critical because recent data from both retrospective and controlled studies indicate that increased growth rate or plane of nutrition during this phase is positively associated with future milk production. Postnatal growth rate depends on nutrition (a necessary but not sufficient condition) and management (i.e., grouping strategies and housing systems), and thus optimal rearing programs should be designed considering long-term consequences on milk yield.     

奶牛乳房炎的治疗与预防

奶牛乳房炎作为影响奶品质、降低产奶量的重要疾病,受环境、病原微生物等诸多因素的影响,该病目前已经成为了制约奶牛养殖业正常发展的重要因素。本文总结了奶牛乳房炎的常见发病原因,并从奶牛临床乳房炎的最急性型、急性型、慢性型和奶牛非临床乳房炎的临床特征和治疗方法进行分析,并从营养管理、环境卫生、挤奶操作、乳房保健和疫苗接种五个方面提出综合防治建议,供同行交流借鉴。     

Managing the dairy cow at calving time.

Managing the dairy cow at calving, unlike artificial insemination or transrectal ultrasonography, is often perceived as an unskilled task, not requiring specialist training. This article presents the argument for the financial and welfare costs associated with poor periparturient management, and how to address them by veterinarian-led education and upskilling of herd personnel. Successful management of the dairy cow at calving will result in the birth of a healthy calf and a smooth transition of the cow into the milking string with minimal calving problems and their sequelae. The tenets of good calving management are predicting accurately when calving is due, moving cows to the maternity unit on time, discrete calving supervision, knowing when and how to intervene, and ensuring the calf is vigorous and fed colostrum and the cow is healthy postpartum.     

Oestrus synchronisation with a prostaglandin analogue: I. Systems in lactating dairy cattle

Three trials were completed to compare different regimes for the use of an analogue of prostaglandin F₂ alpha(“Estrumate”: ICI) in the breeding management of herds of lactating dairy cows with seasonally concentrated calving patterns. The first regime involved two injections of ‘Estrumate’ 11 days apart, followed by insemination, either at 72h and 96h after the second injection, or at the first observed oestrus. Every cow had calved at least 40 days before the first injection. The second regime involved a single ‘Estrumate’ injection given to every cow not inseminated during the first seven days of the breeding programme. Treated cows were inseminated when observed in oestrus within 48h of injection, or at 72h and again at 96h. The third regime utilised the technique of tail-painting during the pre-mating period to identify groups of cycling cows which were subsequently givena single injection of “Estrumate” and inseminated 72h lateror at a subsequent behavioural oestrus.

All regimes significantly altered the conception pattern from that obtained in untreated herd-mates. The variable incidence of post-partum anoestrus, genuine short oestrous cycles and the degree of precision in oestrus synchronisation in lactating dairy cows resulted in many animals being unnecessarily injected and/or inseminated. The third regime overcame most of these problems and could have application in many largeherds. The identification of cycling animals and insemination at detected oestrus are important components of programmes using prostaglandins for the purpose of oestrus synchronisation in lactating cows in seasonal dairy herds.     

奶牛(DHI)生产成绩表的建立与应用

个体奶牛生产成绩汇总报告是奶牛DHI项目的重要组成部分。在我国已全面实施奶牛DHI项目的当今,填报与应用奶牛个体生产成绩汇总表,则显得尤为重要。而我国奶牛DHI项目的全面推广应用,仍处于初级阶段,特别是奶牛生产周期长,部分数据资料的记录与整理,尤其是个体奶牛生产成绩汇总需要较长的时间和准确的记录数据。本文参照发达国家的经验,就个体奶牛生产成绩汇总表的解读、填报与应用,进行举例描述,以期规范记录填报,推进我国奶牛DHI项目的纵深实施和应用。     

保护性蛋氨酸在奶牛中的应用

蛋氨酸是奶牛氨基酸营养的重要成分,直接添加易被瘤胃微生物降解,影响机体吸收利用。保护性蛋氨酸能够避免在瘤胃内降解,满足奶牛蛋氨酸需要,提高生产性能。作者从代谢吸收、营养功能、影响保护性蛋氨酸利用的因素及生产应用方面进行了阐述。     

光学和电化学生物传感器对奶牛重要疾病诊断的研究进展

随着中国奶牛养殖的规模化、集约化的发展,以及养殖场过度追求奶牛生产性能,导致奶牛易发生或感染各类疾病,包括亚临床酮病、亚临床低钙血症、乳腺炎、口蹄疫、呼吸道疾病和牛病毒性腹泻在内的营养性和传染性疾病。这些疾病严重威胁着奶牛的健康、降低了乳品品质,进而增加养殖成本。实现奶牛疾病的低成本、快速且准确诊断是养殖场控制疾病传染、保障食品安全、降低经济损失的关键。常规的畜禽疾病检测方法有细胞培养法、酶联免疫吸附测定(ELISA)、聚合酶链式反应(PCR)等,但过程耗时长、成本高、操作繁琐和不适用于对奶牛疾病的现场即时诊断等问题,制约了这些方法在养殖场的大规模推广和使用。生物传感技术将特异性生化反应产生的信号转化为可测量的电、光等信号,并结合信号放大系统可对物质进行定性或定量检测,具有操作简单、灵敏度高、特异性强和易于修饰等特点,在金属离子、病原菌等检测中具有很大的潜力。目前已有多种生物传感器被开发用于奶牛疾病的诊断。笔者针对常见的奶牛疾病列举了相对应的电化学、光学生物传感器,阐述了每种生物传感器的检测原理、对目标检测物的检测范围、检测限等信息,对生物传感器研究的发展趋势进行了展望,以期为奶牛养殖...     

Use of computer simulation to teach a systems approach to metabolism

Use of a systems approach, as embodied in the computer simulation model of metabolism of a dairy cow, Molly (Baldwin, 2005), is ideal for teaching nutrition. This approach allows the overall complexity of the comprehensive system to be broken down into smaller manageable subunits that are easier to visualize. Quantitative interactions among nutrients supplied and metabolic production processes can be observed over extended time periods. Using Molly, undergraduate animal science students are able to observe detailed effects of changing dietary inputs, altering genetic milk production potential, and exogenously manipulating metabolism on metabolism of the whole cow. This paper demonstrates how Molly is used in the classroom to teach a systems approach to nutrition using example simulations. Three simulation examples demonstrate exercises examining effects of recombinant bovine somatotropin administration, dietary protein, and amino acid supplementation and nitrogen efficiency on milk production and cow metabolism. These and similar examples have been used to teach nutrition, metabolism, and lactation to undergraduate students for the past 20 yr.     

The management of intensive dairy farms can be improved for better welfare and milk yield

The intensive breeding is often considered a risk of low welfare in dairy cows. Namely, the high yield has been suggested to be per se a cause of well-being reduction. Conversely, we have in many farms demonstrated that high milk yielding cows are not necessarily in a bad welfare condition, while many environmental and management problems can cause a distress situation and a reduced milk yield. To confirm these results, in an average yielding dairy farm affected by several problems, the welfare was assessed according to an Integrated Diagnostic System which considers health status, milk yield and quality, feeding strategy, blood profiles etc. The same check-up has been repeated a year later, after some attempts to correct main mistakes previously observed: dry and lactating cow diets, n° of cubicles, hygiene conditions, preparation and milking procedures etc. In one year only part of the mistakes have been fully corrected; nevertheless, the animal response was definitively improved suggesting a better welfare situation: improvement of teat and body condition (BCS) scores and reduction of open days, of legs and feet lesions and of somatic cell count (SCC : 283 vs. 456 cells/μl) as well as an increase of milk yield (25.2 vs. 20.1 kg/d).

Results confirmed that better breeding techniques can optimise the animal welfare and optimise milk yield in the intensive systems.     

Behavioral needs of the transition cow and considerations for special needs facility design.

Improved building designs come from a better understanding of the behavioral needs of the dairy cow. The costs to provide for these needs in the facility must be offset by improved milk production, health, and longevity. Research is still required to more fully understand the health implications of many building design considerations and their impact on disease. Perhaps the most important end result of an improved environment for the transition cow, however, is an improvement in animal well-being. Better buildings that accommodate the behavioral needs of cows present "win-win" situations where dairy cattle thrive and work is more enjoyable. This results in an improved image for the industry, greater consumer confidence in the quality and safety of the final food product, and a prosperous dairy industry.