Urban green spaces and sustainability: Exploring the ecosystem services and disservices of grassy lawns versus floral meadows

Urban green spaces provide important ecological, environmental, and cultural benefits, including biodiversity conservation and human wellbeing. However, a significant portion of urban green space is currently managed as highly manicured grassy lawns that provide limited ecosystem services. Managing urban green spaces as diverse meadows can have a multitude of ecosystem benefits such as biodiversity conservation, stormwater infiltration, and aesthetics. Relatively little is known about the range of ecosystem services or disservices in managing urban green spaces as lawns versus meadows. In this paper, we separately characterize three major categories of ecosystem services and disservices (provisioning, regulation and maintenance, and cultural) delivered by urban lawns and meadows while highlighting several trade-offs and synergies associated with urban lawn and meadow management strategies. Additionally, we suggest specific research priorities to better evaluate ecosystem services and disservices across these urban green spaces. Understanding ecological, environmental, and cultural trade-offs and synergies of managing different urban green spaces is key to maintaining multiple ecosystem services in urban environments.     

The ecosystem disservices of trees on sidewalks: A study based on a municipality urban tree inventory in Central Italy

Urban green infrastructure, including street trees, plays a key role in providing ecosystem services to urban residents. However, to fully understand the effective role of trees in the urban context, it is also necessary to evaluate the disservices that they can produce in the development of their functions if not managed in an adequate and integrated way. This contribution aims to demonstrate an approach to assess three disservices (pavement damage, aesthetic damage, likelihood of tree failure) of street trees at the municipal level, starting from the existing municipal tree inventory. In this case study, from the street tree population, a sample of approximately 5% of the trees was drawn by stratified random sampling, where the strata were composed of groups of tree species. In particular, a sampling scheme is adapted in which the probability to select a tree in the sample is greater for bigger trees, under the assumption that the bigger the trees the greater are the disservices caused. In this way, a greater precision of the estimates of the considered disservices for the population of urban trees is expected. The results show a high variability of disservices provision among species groups. The results also confirmed a positive correlation between the considered disservices and tree diameter at breast height, while other tree attributes such as total height and crown diameter were found to be positively related only to pavement damages. Finally, severe pruning can lead to a high level of the aesthetic and functional disservices even for shorter and younger street trees.     

Geospatial assessment of urban ecosystem disservices: An example of poisonous urban trees in Berlin,Germany

Urban trees play an important role in green infrastructure planning for the ecosystem services they provide. These services include carbon sequestration, the provision of clean air through oxygen production and filtering of airborne pollutants, and the offsetting of the urban heat island effect by providing shade and cooling. In addition to the well-studied positive effects of urban trees, under specific conditions, there are some unwanted side effects that need to be considered. Such negative side effects, such as allergies caused by tree pollen, traffic hazards from falling trees or tree parts or damage from roots or branches in resource supply or waste disposal infrastructures, are termed ecosystem disservices. An ecosystem disservice that is not very often illuminated in the urban context is the presence of poisonous urban trees. This paper provides a spatially explicit view of the distribution of poisonous urban trees in the city of Berlin, relating the spatial distribution of the hazard from this urban ecosystem disservice with the conditions under which it can have the most damaging effect by considering nearby playgrounds and areas with a high population density of children under 5 years old, the most vulnerable group within the urban population.     

Communication of ecosystem services and disservices in local newspapers in Winnipeg,Canada

The global intensification of urbanization is driving a disconnect between humans and nature. Communicating ecosystem services (ES) and disservices (EDS) to city residents offers an opportunity to help reassociate people with ecological processes of the urban forest, benefiting support for urban forest management. It has been theorized that the complexity of ES and EDS may dissuade their coverage by journalists in print media. Further, the complexity of the interrelationship of ES and EDS could represent a challenge for communication. To examine communication of ES and EDS, we conducted a literature review of newspaper articles published in two prominent newspapers in Winnipeg, Manitoba between January 2010 and May 2021. During the study period, 114 urban forestry articles mentioned ES and/or EDS. Cultural services were the most frequently discussed, followed by regulating services. Provisioning services were discussed least which may reflect their reduced importance in urban forestry discourse/management. Twenty-three articles mentioned EDS, only eight of which also mentioned ES. Only six articles referenced the related ES to the EDS, all of which were in articles focused on tree planting. Despite the complexity of many ES discussed in the articles, the interrelatedness of some ES and EDS were not well described. Counter to previous newspaper reviews, we found that ES were discussed more than EDS. However, the communication of EDS remains an important component of urban forest discourse. While navigating communication on the intersection of ES and EDS may prove challenging in print journalism, we argue restructuring EDS communication such that it is framed in ES discourse could mitigate public concerns surrounding urban forestry, while creating equitable coverage of urban forest affairs. We identify the need for further research on the impact of social media and television as alternative venues for urban forestry discourse.     

Responses of four hornet species to levels of urban greenness in Nagoya city,Japan: Implications for ecosystem disservices of urban green spaces

Although there is a common trend towards increasing green space in modern cities, urban green spaces provide not only ecosystem services but also disservices for urban dwellers. However, the relationship between urban greenness and ecosystem disservices has been poorly examined. We aimed to understand the effect of greenness level on the abundance and species composition of hornets – critical pests in Japan and to identify the best spatial scale for estimating their abundance with reference to greenness levels. We used a dataset that contained eight years of abundance data for four hornet species at 11 sites in Nagoya city. The levels of greenness around the hornet sampling points were measured using averages from the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) with radiuses of 0.1–10.0 km. We analysed the relationship between abundance and species composition of hornets and NDVI at different spatial scales using generalized linear mixed models. Higher NDVI values positively affected the abundance of all the hornet species except Vespa analis. The abundances were estimated most effectively using the NDVI average with a 1–2 km radius for all species. The species composition of hornets drastically changed along the gradient of NDVI values; V. mandarinia was dominant in greener areas (over 0.2–0.3 NDVI average with a 2 km radius) and V. analis in less green areas (below 0.2–0.3 NDVI average). Our study showed that the abundance and species composition of hornets were both strongly associated with the level of urban greenness. This suggests that increases in the greenness of urban areas can increase hornet abundance and alter the species composition of hornets; a more aggressive species, V. mandarinia, may also increase in urban areas, although V. analis is currently the most critical species according to regional consultants. Balancing ecosystem services and disservices has become crucial for the planning and management of green spaces, particularly when urban green space increases. We also demonstrate how human tolerance towards wildlife may have to be improved in order to live in greener environment where wildlife can be expected.     

Remote sensing for the assessment of ecosystem services provided by urban vegetation: A review of the methods applied

The study and assessment of ecosystem services through remote sensing has increased substantially over the last two decades, as evidenced by the publication of studies that have applied it. The technological development of satellite images has improved in terms of spatial, spectral, radiometric, and temporal resolution, allowing the space-time observation, classification and monitoring of vegetation on the surface of the Earth. However, there are remaining methodological challenges for assessing ecosystem services due to the diversity of applications, the resources used, and its study in complex environments such as cities. This systematic review is based on identifying and analysing the variety of methods concerning the application of remote sensing for the assessment of ecosystem services provided by vegetation in cities, through a classification of these methods according to the data collection source (passive sensors, passive and active sensors and the fusion of other data sources with sensors). The classification of methods has been applied to a selection of existing articles in indexed scientific databases based on a non-statistical meta-analysis that make a direct reference to the topic of interest. The results show the approaches found in every method classified, their relationships with the geographical scale and the image resolutions used, and the advantages and limitations from the data processes that comprise remote sensing. We conclude from this analysis with three key factors to consider in the selection of remote sensing methods for the assessment of ecosystem services provided by urban vegetation: the definition of the approach(es), the urban scale to be assessed, and the image resolution available.     

Effect of different personal histories on valuation for forest ecosystem services in urban areas: A case study of Mt. Rokko,Kobe, Japan

This study investigated the effect of valuators’ personal history and beliefs on valuation of ecosystem services around Mt. Rokko, which is located near Kobe, a major city in Japan. Special attention was paid to how differences in lifestyle, access to nature, and experiences during childhood influence willingness to pay (WTP) for peri-urban ecosystem conservation. The estimated values (median: 1858 JPY) were relatively higher than in previous case studies including one on the World Heritage forest in the country, but the value was not outlier of the literature. From the simple model estimation, we focused on the effect of individual differences. The full model including information of personal experience with nature revealed differences in WTP among residents. The basic characteristics of age and income were found to have a significant effect. Interestingly, it was also found that certain experiences during childhood had a significant effect on increasing WTP for ecosystem and biodiversity conservation. These findings suggest the importance of considering the diversity of valuators in ecosystem valuation studies under urbanization processes, and it also warns the extinction of experience with nature under on going urbanization for urban ecosystem conservation.     

How perceived sensory dimensions of urban green spaces affect cultural ecosystem benefits: A study on Haizhu Wetland Park,China

Research exploring the relationship between human well-being and ecosystem functions by assessing cultural ecosystem benefits (CEBs) is a crucial and emerging field. However, quantifying CEB is challenging due to the lack of a uniform measurement scale. In addition, it is crucial to understand the factors that influence CEBs to enhance ecosystem functions and contribute to human well-being. While physical landscape features have been investigated, there is limited evidence supporting the link between perception-based landscape features and CEBs. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a CEBs measurement scale and investigate the impact of perceived sensory dimensions (PSDs) of urban green spaces (UGSs) on CEBs. We conducted a Public Participation GIS-survey (PPGIS) at Guangzhou National Haizhu Wetland Park. 1473 participants took part in our study and evaluated the CEBs provided by urban green spaces (UGSs). Using SPSS statistics and ArcMap tools, we found that PSDs of UGSs are significantly associated with CEB. Additionally, we confirmed that different levels within a PSD influence the levels of CEBs gained from UGSs. Our results indicate that creating serene, open, and natural UGSs is more effective than incorporating numerous cultural elements. In conclusion, this study introduces PSDs into the framework of CEB, which landscape architects can use to shape the specific environmental characteristics of UGSs and provide the CEBs required to support the well-being of urban populations.     

Loss of street trees predicted to cause 6000 L/tree increase in leaf-on stormwater runoff for Great Lakes urban sewershed

Urban forests are recognized as a nature-based solution for stormwater management. This study assessed the underlying processes and extent of runoff reduction due to street trees with a paired-catchment experiment conducted in two sewersheds of Fond du Lac, Wisconsin. Computer models are flexible, fast, and low-cost options to generalize and assess the hydrologic processes determined in field studies. A state-of-the-art, public-domain model, which explicitly simulates urban tree hydrology, i-Tree Hydro, was used to simulate the paired-catchment experiment, and results from field observations and simulation predictions were compared to assess model validity and suitability as per conditions in the broader Great Lakes basin. Model parameters were aligned with observed conditions using automatic and manual calibration. Model performance metrics were used to quantify the weekly performance of calibration and to validate predictions. Those calibration metrics differed substantially between the two periods simulated, but most calibration metrics remained positive, indicating the model was not fitting only the period used for calibration. Predicted avoided runoff for a five-month leaf-on period was 64 L/m² of canopy, 4 % lower than the field-estimated avoided runoff of 66 L/m² of canopy. Interception was the most directly comparable process between the model and field observations. Based on 5 storms sampled, field estimation of precipitation intercepted and retained on trees averaged 63 % and ranged from 22 % to 81 %, while model estimation averaged 61 % and ranged from 36 % to 99 %. This model was able to fit predictions to observed catchment discharge but required extensive manual calibration to do so. The i-Tree Hydro model predicted avoided runoff comparable with the field study and earlier assessments. Additional field studies in similar settings are needed to confirm findings and improve transferability to other tree species and environmental settings.     

Greening plans as (re)presentation of the city: Toward an inclusive and gender-sensitive approach to urban greenspaces

Cities around the world are increasingly expanding their sustainability agendas and adopting urban green and blue infrastructure planning as a strategy to become more resilient, healthy and sustainable. However, the development of urban greening governance often lacks a holistic vision that considers social inequities within the planning, implementation and management of green and blue spaces. Further, gender inequities have been a specific dimension particularly overlooked in urban greening planning, despite gender concerns gaining increasing political relevance in recent years. In this research, we assessed the extento to which social and gender equity are being considered in urban greening plans and projects at the local level. We chose Barcelona (Spain) as main case study due to its pioneering role in implementing crosscutting equity and gender policies at the municipal level. Building on document analysis and semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders, we examined how social justice and gender are understood and operationalized in practice, from the design phase to implementation and maintenance of greening projects. Our findings suggest a shift in the role of urban greening which evolved from an ornamental role to a multifunctional vision of greening and is recently incorporating equity and inclusivity concerns. We identified three action areas of inclusive, gender-sensitive urban green planning practices: first, the incorporation of inclusivity and care as guiding visible values to recognize multiple needs of city residents; second, urban design for different uses and perceptions of greenspaces, particularly in relation to accessibility and autonomy; and third, the awareness and expertise from municipal staff vis-à-vis the consideration of social and gender equity in green planning and participatory approaches. Finally, we provide practical examples of the strategies that the City of Barcelona is implementing in each area and discuss some challenges and limitations, including what we identify as ad hoc intersectional greening.     

Soundscapes of urban parks: An innovative approach for ecosystem monitoring and adaptive management

Urban foresters are addressing the challenge of urban biodiversity loss through management plans in the context of rapid urbanization. Protecting the integrity of the urban ecosystem requires long-term monitoring and planning for resilience as well as effective management. The soundscape assessment has attracted attention in this field, but applying the soundscape assessment in urban ecological monitoring requires a protocol that links soundscapes to the impact of resource management on biodiversity over time. The effective processing and visualization of large-scale data also remains an important challenge. The aim of this study was to better understand the relationship between soundscape and physical environment, and examine the feasibility of this innovative soundscape approach in highly urbanized areas. Soundscape recordings were collected for 20 urban parks twice on 4 consecutive days in Spring. A total of 691,200 min of sound material were automatically obtained. In order to track the spatio-temporal patterns of a soundscape and determine its potential suitability for ecosystem monitoring, our study characterized soundscape information by adopting 4 widely used acoustic indices: acoustic diversity index (ADI), bioacoustic index (BIO), normalized difference vegetation index (NDSI), and power spectral density (PSD). Daily patterns of PSD have provided a potential connection between soundscapes and bird songs, and 1–2 kHz presented a similar pattern that was linked to human activity. Through further modeling, we tested the relationship of soundscapes to physical environment characteristics. The results showed the importance of habitat vegetation structure for acoustic diversity. More vertical heterogeneity, with an uneven canopy height or multilayered vegetation, was associated with more acoustic diversity. This suggests that clearing ground cover may have a significant negative impact on wildlife. Our results suggest that soundscape approaches provide a way to quickly synthesize large-scale recording data into meaningful patterns that can track changes in bird songs and ecosystem conditions. The proposed approach would enable regular assessment of urban parks and forests to inform adaptive planning and management strategies that can maintain or enhance biodiversity.     

Crisis mediated new discoveries,claims and encounters: Changing use and perception of residential greenery in multistory housing in Berlin,Germany

With the stay at home orders during the pandemic, the often semi-public green spaces of the residential environment, usually created during the building of the houses, became our literal spheres of experience. In our study, we explored use and perceptions of local greenery by residents after sixteen months of the COVID-19 crisis, using face to face questionnaires in eight socially disadvantaged neighborhoods of Berlin, all exposed to high loads of environmental stressors and belonging to four relevant building types of Central European cities. Residential greenery was highly appreciated by residents during COVID-19, and fostered a more active appropriation such as meeting neighbors to reduce the sense of loneliness, doing sports and co-creating refugia in challenging times (e.g. greened balconies). Having children or doing home office/schooling encouraged people to use the green in front of the door in more active ways, such as gardening or even during winter. A minor proportion of respondents reduced contacts mainly due to fear of infections, underlining the need to overcome those distances and to re-connect neighbors and living inside and outside the houses in a post-pandemic city. Our data prove the functionality of residential greenery as ‘social tissue’ or ‘social hubs’ of neighborhoods by fostering attachment to place and people and, at the same time, as healthy environment for practices such as enjoying nature and physical activity in fresh air.     

A balancing act: Biodiversity and human wellbeing considerations in the management of urban forest in a global biodiversity hotspot

Environmental and urban forest managers in cities located in highly biodiverse regions may need to balance biodiversity conservation with the provision of ecosystem services to people. However, striking this balance is not easy and many competing factors influence the decision-making process. Set in the Perth Metropolitan Area, located in the global biodiversity hotspot of the Southwestern Australia Floristic Province, this study aimed to understand: (i) the extent to which a benefits-oriented approach is used by local governments to optimise biodiversity and human wellbeing urban forest outcomes, and (ii) what other factors influence the decision-making process shaping urban forest composition. Using a social-ecological framework, we conducted semi-structured interviews with 29 local government practitioners. We found that biodiversity conservation is actively considered in the planning and management of urban forest in natural areas and parks, but rarely in streetscapes. Maximising shade and cooling, and to a lesser extent enhancing sense of place, were the key benefits actively sought in streetscapes. Parks appeared to straddle the middle ground as areas with most flexibility to accommodate multiple biodiversity and human wellbeing benefits. Yet, benefits were only some of a multitude of social-ecological factors influencing the decision-making process shaping urban forest composition. In particular, streetscapes were affected by a large number of social and political factors (e.g., perceived risk and nuisance, ad-hoc decisions by elected members), many of them leading to suboptimal urban forest outcomes. For a benefits-oriented approach to prevail in complex and contested urban spaces it is important that the decision-making process is evidence-informed and capable of handling the challenges and conflicts that are likely to arise. Reactive decision-making results in a conservative, “safe” species palette that over time defines streetscapes by what they do not do (creating disservices) rather than what they do (delivering multiple biodiversity and wellbeing benefits), which ultimately is not a desired outcome in the context of an increasingly urbanized world.     

Public satisfaction with urban trees and their management in Australia: The roles of values,beliefs, knowledge,and trust

The success of urban forest management strategies is dependent on public support for and engagement with urban trees. Satisfaction with urban trees and their management, and the level of trust people have in urban tree managers, are useful for understanding public opinions. Yet these concepts, and the mechanisms leading to the formation of public opinions remain poorly explored in the literature. Here we explore how satisfaction with urban trees and with urban tree management, and trust in the agencies responsible for urban tree management, are explained by cognitive factors (values, beliefs, and knowledge) and socio-ecological contextual factors (tree presence/canopy cover, cultural diversity, and socioeconomic status) using an online survey of 16 local government areas in south-eastern Australia. Analyses of 2367 responses revealed that people’s opinions about trees in general (values and beliefs) were overwhelmingly positive, while their opinions about more contextualised measures such as satisfaction and trust were more mixed. Two distinct pathways that influence satisfaction were identified: one linked to beliefs about having trees in cities, and another one linked to trust in urban tree management. At the local government level, satisfaction was negatively associated with a measure of cultural diversity and very low levels of tree canopy cover, but not with socioeconomic disadvantage. Satisfaction with local trees could be improved by increasing the quality of ecological function of trees, such as habitat provision and tree diversity. Community engagement could also improve satisfaction and trust, particularly perceived procedural fairness of decision-making, reinforce positive beliefs about the outcomes of having trees in cities, and dispel negative beliefs. Engagement processes should recognise that people hold complex and diverse opinions about urban trees, and by incorporating these opinions into decision-making we can meet the increasingly complex and diverse expectations being placed on urban forests.     

Scaling up ecosystem productivity from patch to landscape: a case study of Changbai Mountain Nature Reserve,China

Scaling up ecosystem processes from plots to landscapes is essential for understanding landscape structure and functioning as well as for assessing ecological impacts of land use and climate change. This study illustrates an upscaling approach to studying the spatiotemporal pattern of ecosystem processes in the Changbai Mountain Nature Reserve in northeastern China by integrating simulation modeling, GIS, remote sensing data, and field-based observations. The ecosystem model incorporated processes of energy transfer, plant physiology, carbon dynamics, and water cycling. Using a direct extrapolation scheme, the patch-level ecosystem model was scaled up to quantify the landscape-level pattern of primary productivity and the carbon source-sink relationship. The simulated net primary productivity (NPP) for the entire landscape, consisting of several ecosystem types, was 0.680 kg C m⁻² yr⁻¹. The most widely distributed ecosystem type in this region was the mixed broad-leaved and Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) forest, which had the highest NPP (1.084 kg C m⁻² yr⁻¹). The total annual NPP for all ecosystem types combined was estimated to be 1.332 Mt C yr⁻¹. These results suggest that the Changbai Mountain landscape as a whole was a carbon sink, with a net carbon sequestration rate of about 0.884 Mt C yr⁻¹ for the study period. The simulated NPP agreed reasonably well with available field measurements at a number of locations within the study landscape. Our study provides new insight into the relationship between landscape pattern and ecosystem processes, and useful information for improving management practices in the Changbai Mountain Nature Reserve, which is one of the most important forested landscapes in China. Several research needs are discussed to further refine the modeling approach and reduce prediction uncertainties.     

How different ethno-cultural groups value urban forests and its implications for managing urban nature in a multicultural landscape: A systematic review of the literature

Understanding how different ethno-cultural groups value urban nature is important to understand the role of ethno-cultural diversity in urban ecosystem management. Based on a systematic literature review, this paper summarizes the empirical evidence on how different ethno-cultural groups use, perceive, prefer, and assign meaning to urban nature. I use the urban forest, defined here as all the trees in a city, as a proxy to understand this process. The 31 studies reviewed here differ widely in their lines of inquiry, research methods, urban natural setting, and conceptualizations of ethno-cultural identity. Most studies take place in the US and Europe, where the most common definition of an ethno-culturally diverse group is a person of non-European/non-White background. Most studies focus on what these groups like about a particular urban natural setting, such as an urban park; and whether they like more or less trees in a specific context (e.g. urban park). These groups usually prefer passive and social uses of urban natural areas, and more manicured/functional natural landscapes with less trees. The most common meanings associated with urban natural settings dominated by trees are social interaction and integration. The most common explanations on why these differences occur involve theories on socio-economic marginality, collectivist vs. individualist cultures, urban vs. rural lifestyles, and landscapes of origin. Future research on the topic will benefit by differentiating race from ethnicity, capturing intra-ethnic variation, capturing immigrant identities, exploring the different social, cultural, and economic factors that influence values and/or preferences, and focusing on concrete aspects of urban nature, such as urban forests.     

Public green spaces and human wellbeing: Mapping the spatial inequity and mismatching status of public green space in the Central City of Shanghai

Public green spaces are fundamental and indispensable to urban settlements, given the diverse social, economic and environmental benefits that they can provide. However, the absence of knowledge regarding the allocation and access status quo consistently hinders the suitability and rationality of follow-up green space planning, which could eventually impair the livability and sustainability of cities. This study evaluates disparities in access to public green space for urban residents and the spatial mismatches among public green space provision, residents’ visits and the demands of socially vulnerable groups within the Central City of Shanghai. The results show that disparities in public green space accessibility exist pertaining to social status and household composition status. Sub-districts with higher social status or larger proportions of family households composed by children and married inhabitants tend to have better public green space access. In contrast, sub-districts with larger proportions of aged or unemployed populations unexpectedly show worse public green space access. To a certain degree, this reduced access can be considered to be an environmental injustice. Additionally, the mismatches among public green space provision, residents’ visits and the demands of socially vulnerable groups are observed to vary in space, indicating potential problems of resource shortage, supply-demand mismatch, underuse and congestion. The findings could offer urban planners and policy-makers insights into optimizing public green space resources and equitably providing proximal public green space to urban residents, especially vulnerable groups, such as children, the elderly and the unemployed.     

Assessment of joint soil ecosystem services supply in urban green spaces: A case study in Northern Italy

The multiple functions of urban soils secure the supply of ecosystem services to the urban population, but they are seldom taken into account in current urban planning. The purpose of this study is to highlight the multifunctionality of the soils of urban green spaces and to assess the influence of different types of urban green (i.e. parks and gardens, roadside green and agricultural fields) on the joint supply of soil-based ecosystem services. In a case study area in the city of Carpi (NE Italy), we focused on a set of soil functions underpinning ecosystem services and on possible synergies and trade-offs between them. We surveyed and sampled 19 urban green areas to assess the following soil functions: biological fertility, potential habitat for organisms, water regulation and storage, soil buffering capacity and carbon stock. Results showed differences and trends in the bundles of ecosystem services provided by the soils of urban green areas, highlighting the relevance of soil disturbance and vegetation cover density in affecting soil functions. For biological indicators, results showed a negative significant correlation to CaCO₃ content, which is associated with the degree of soil disturbance, and that soils in urban areas do not always have compromised soil fauna and may provide the same level of biological quality as agricultural soils or forests.     

Analyzing the effects of nature exposure on perceived satisfaction with running routes: An activity path-based measure approach

Studies on the linkages between nature exposure and physical activities often focus simply on the immediate vicinity of home locations, but path-based exercises, such as running and cycling, are continuous activities and cover a broad spatial extent. Thus, the traditional home buffer approach fails to acknowledge the settings where road running actually occurs. This study employed an activity path-based measure approach using public participation GIS (PPGIS) to investigate the associations between running satisfaction and nature exposure. The mapped routes (N=545) that included an assessment of satisfaction level were collected from 249 runners resided in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area, Finland. Logistic regression analyses revealed a positive association between running satisfaction and nature exposure, including eye-level greenness, top-down greenness and blue space density. Top-down greenness was assessed by Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and the eye-level greenness by Green View Index (GVI), the latter one of which uses a deep learning algorithm. Running environment was more satisfying in those routes with more public transport nodes. Other traffic-related factors breaking the momentum of runners such as traffic light density were inversely related to running satisfaction. Demographic characteristics such as education background also played a significant role in the perceived satisfaction with running routes. The positive impacts of nature exposure on running satisfaction further verify the linkages between landscape and public health.     

The social and economic value of cultural ecosystem services provided by urban forests in North America: A review and suggestions for future research

With the majority of the world’s human population now living in cities, urban forests provide an increasingly important range of ecosystem services, from improved air quality and climate change adaptation to better public health outcomes and increased tourism revenues. The importance of these ecosystem services in urban environments, and the central role that cities play in the lives of people around the world, have motivated various attempts to quantify the value of ecosystem services provided by urban forests. This paper reviews existing research in the fields of urban forestry, economics, sociology, and health on the value of urban ecosystem services, with a focus on cultural services, a category of ecosystem services that is of key importance to human well-being but that has suffered from a lack of empirical research. The review identified 38 studies that examined the value of mixed vegetation, 31 studies that examined the value of trees, and 43 studies that examined the value of green spaces. Psychological health is the most-studied ecosystem service category, with most research in this area focusing on the services of mixed vegetation. Social health, community economic development, and tourism are the least-studied, with most research in these areas focusing on mixed vegetation and trees. Multiple metrics were used to quantify the value of urban greenery within each ecosystem service category but only 11 metrics were assigned a monetary value. Gaps in the literature that present strong opportunities for future research include: the value of urban forests for improving social health, equitable access to ecosystem services, the impact of urban forests on community economic development, and economic valuation and green exposure metrics. We hope that this review stimulates future research in the areas highlighted and that municipalities consider including evaluations of a broad range of ecosystem services during land use planning and budgeting processes.