A Retrospective Economic Analysis of the Ontario Red Fox Oral Rabies Vaccination Programme

Ontario initiated a red fox (Vulpes vulpes ) oral rabies vaccination (ORV) programme in 1989. This study utilized a benefit‐cost analysis to determine if this ORV programme was economically worthwhile. Between 1979 and 1989, prior to ORV baiting, the average annual human post‐exposure treatments, positive red fox rabies diagnostic tests and indemnity payments for livestock lost to rabies were 2248, 1861 and $246 809, respectively. After baiting, from 1990 to 2000, a 35%, 66% and 41% decrease in post‐exposure treatments, animal rabies tests and indemnity payments was observed, respectively. These reductions were viewed as benefits of the ORV programme, whereas total costs were those associated with ORV baiting. Multiple techniques were used to estimate four different benefit streams and the total estimated benefits ranged from $35 486 316 to $98 413 217. The annual mean ORV programme cost was $6 447 720, with total programme costs of $77 372 637. The average benefit‐cost ratios over the analysis period were .49, 1.06, 1.27 and 1.36, indicating overall programme efficiency in three of the four conservative scenarios.     

The Perceived Value of Passive Animal Health Surveillance: The Case of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in Vietnam

Economic evaluations are critical for the assessment of the efficiency and sustainability of animal health surveillance systems and the improvement of their efficiency. Methods identifying and quantifying costs and benefits incurred by public and private actors of passive surveillance systems (i.e. actors of veterinary authorities and private actors who may report clinical signs) are needed. This study presents the evaluation of perceived costs and benefits of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) passive surveillance in Vietnam. Surveys based on participatory epidemiology methods were conducted in three provinces in Vietnam to collect data on costs and benefits resulting from the reporting of HPAI suspicions to veterinary authorities. A quantitative tool based on stated preference methods and participatory techniques was developed and applied to assess the non‐monetary costs and benefits. The study showed that poultry farmers are facing several options regarding the management of HPAI suspicions, besides reporting the following: treatment, sale or destruction of animals. The option of reporting was associated with uncertain outcome and transaction costs. Besides, actors anticipated the release of health information to cause a drop of markets prices. This cost was relevant at all levels, including farmers, veterinary authorities and private actors of the upstream sector (feed, chicks and medicine supply). One benefit associated with passive surveillance was the intervention of public services to clean farms and the environment to limit the disease spread. Private actors of the poultry sector valued information on HPAI suspicions (perceived as a non‐monetary benefit) which was mainly obtained from other private actors and media.     

Hardwood Rangeland Landowners in California from 1985 to 2004: Production,Ecosystem Services,and Permanence

A longitudinal study of California hardwood rangelands shows significant change in landowner characteristics and goals. Results of three studies spanning 1985 to 2004 were used to develop and evaluate a multiagency research and extension program known as the Integrated Hardwood Range Management Program. Program-sponsored education and research aimed at encouraging landowners to change woodland management has been reflected in a significant reduction in oak cutting and an increase in oak planting. Recent changes have come with the times: landowners were as likely to have consulted land trusts about oaks as Cooperative Extension, and the number engaged in production of crops or livestock continued to decline. On the other hand, the proportion of landowners, including ranchers, reporting that they live in the oak woodland to benefit from ecosystem services such as natural beauty, recreation, and lifestyle benefits significantly increased. Though owners of large properties and ranchers were more strongly against regulation and “government interference” than other respondents, this did not appear to affect oak values and management. Property size remained significantly related to landowner goals, values, and practices, with those producing livestock owning most of the larger properties. There has been a decline in the number of properties being studied due to conversion of some from oak woodland to other uses, though the remaining respondents still own at least 10% of the woodlands. Landowners with conservation easements or those who are willing to consider them, who believe oak recruitment is inadequate, or who use advisory services were significantly less likely to cut oaks and more likely to plant them. Policy, management, and outreach that support synergies between production and conservation activities, and that combine ecosystem service-based income streams that encourage keeping land intact and increased land-use stability, are needed to support conservation of private rangelands.     

牧户多样化生计与草地生态系统服务的依赖关系:以喀拉峻天山世界自然遗产地为例

牧户依赖于生态系统服务,并且影响生态系统提供服务的能力。研究揭示草原牧区牧户生计与生态系统服务依赖关系的特征规律对实现人类福祉与生态系统协同发展具有重要意义。应用生态系统服务依赖度(index system of farmer dependence on ecosystem services,IDES)指数模型分析了喀拉峻190个样本牧户调查数据,探讨了外出务工、经营旅游业、畜牧业生产及旅游畜牧兼业4种生计策略对生态系统服务的依赖度;进一步利用灰色关联度模型,讨论了4种生计策略牧户生计资本对IDES的影响。结果表明,1)牧户从生态系统服务中获得收益差异显著,经营旅游业牧户获益差距最大,其从文化服务中获益最多,户均15564元,从调节服务中获益最少,户均482元;2)不同生计策略牧户对生态系统服务的依赖度由大到小排序,依次为旅游畜牧兼业>经营旅游业>外出务工>畜牧业生产;3)不同生计策略牧户的生计资本与IDES的关联度存在强弱差异,其中社会资本与IDES存在强关联,其他生计资本与IDES存在中度关联。基于此,提出鼓励牧户适度兼业,提升生态系统服务供给能力;健全草原旅游参与机制,增强文化服务依赖性;提高牧户社会资本,加强生态系统服务关联性等建议,从而推进生计与生态系统可持续发展目标的实现。     

Conservation of Pattern and Process: Developing an Alternative Paradigm of Rangeland Management

This article examines the question of how well the rangeland management profession has served conservation of patterns and processes that support multiple ecosystem services. We examine the paradigms under which rangeland management operates and argue that our profession developed under the utilitarian paradigm with the primary goals of sustainable forage for livestock production. While optimization of multiple rangeland products and services has always been a consideration, a comprehensive set of principles have not be been developed to advance this concept. We argue that fire and grazing, often viewed as mere tools used for production goals, should rather be viewed as essential ecosystem processes. Rangeland management continues to operate under the utilitarian paradigm appropriate to societal values of the 20th century and by and large has failed to provide management guidance to reverse degradation of several highly valued ecosystem services. We support this argument with evidence that biodiversity has declined on rangelands in the past half century and that much of this decline is due to management goals that favor a narrow suite of species. The full suite of ecosystem services valued by society will only benefit by management for heterogeneity, which implies that there is no one goal for management and that landscape-level planning is crucial. Explicitly incorporating heterogeneity into state-and-transition models is an important advancement not yet achieved by our profession. We present new principles for rangeland management formed on the basis of conservation of pattern and process. While recognizing that many rangelands have significant deviations from historic plant communities and disturbance regimes, we suggest that management for conservation of pattern and process should focus on fire and grazing to the extent possible to promote a shifting mosaic across large landscapes that include patches that are highly variable in the amount of disturbance rather than the current goal of uniform moderate disturbance.     

Economic Assessment of Zoonoses Surveillance in a ‘One Health’ Context: A Conceptual Framework

Collaboration between animal and public health sectors has been highlighted as a means to improve the management of zoonotic threats. This includes surveillance systems for zoonoses, where enhanced cross‐sectoral integration and sharing of information are seen as key to improved public health outcomes. Yet, there is a lack of evidence on the economic returns of such collaboration, particularly in the development and implementation of surveillance programmes. The economic assessment of surveillance in this context needs to be underpinned by the understanding of the links between zoonotic disease surveillance in animal populations and the wider public health disease mitigation process and how these relations impact on the costs and benefits of the surveillance activities. This study presents a conceptual framework of these links as a basis for the economic assessment of cross‐sectoral zoonoses surveillance with the aim of supporting the prioritization of resource allocation to surveillance. In the proposed framework, monetary, non‐monetary and intermediate or intangible cost components and benefit streams of three conceptually distinct stages of zoonotic disease mitigation are identified. In each stage, as the final disease mitigation objective varies so does the use of surveillance information generated in the animal populations for public health decision‐making. Consequently, the associated cost components and benefit streams also change. Building on the proposed framework and taking into account these links, practical steps for its application are presented and future challenges are discussed.     

草地生态系统服务功能及其价值评估研究进展

草地生态系统是维持自然生态系统格局、保护生态安全屏障、开展畜牧业生产和传承草原文化的基础。随着人类对草地生态系统服务功能不可替代性的深入认识,通过定量评估生态系统服务功能及其价值,对认识草地生态服务功能的重要性和生态资产增值具有重要的作用。在总结国内外生态系统服务功能及其价值文献基础上,对草地生态系统服务功能及其价值的内涵、生态服务价值评估方法及其特点和国内外研究现状进行了系统总结,分析了草地生态系统服务功能及其价值评估中存在的主要问题,提出了未来研究的发展方向。     

Antimicrobial‐resistant Enterobacteriaceae recovered from companion animal and livestock environments

Antimicrobial‐resistant bacteria represent an important concern impacting both veterinary medicine and public health. The rising prevalence of extended‐spectrum beta‐lactamase (ESBL), AmpC beta‐lactamase, carbapenemase (CRE) and fluoroquinolone‐resistant Enterobacteriaceae continually decreases the efficiency of clinically important antibiotics. Moreover, the potential for zoonotic transmission of antibiotic‐resistant enteric bacteria increases the risk to public health. Our objective was to estimate the prevalence of specific antibiotic‐resistant bacteria on human contact surfaces in various animal environments. Environmental surface samples were collected from companion animal shelters, private equine facilities, dairy farms, livestock auction markets and livestock areas of county fairs using electrostatic cloths. Samples were screened for Enterobacteriaceae expressing AmpC, ESBL, CRE or fluoroquinolone resistance using selective media. Livestock auction markets and county fairs had higher levels of bacteria expressing both cephalosporin and fluoroquinolone resistance than did equine, dairy, and companion animal environments. Equine facilities harboured more bacteria expressing cephalosporin resistance than companion animal shelters, but less fluoroquinolone resistance. The regular use of extended‐spectrum cephalosporins in livestock populations could account for the increased levels of cephalosporin resistance in livestock environments compared to companion animal and equine facilities. Human surfaces, as well as shared human and animal surfaces, were contaminated with resistant bacteria regardless of species environment. Detecting these bacteria on common human contact surfaces suggests that the environment can serve as a reservoir for the zoonotic transmission of antibiotic‐resistant bacteria and resistance genes. Identifying interventions to lower the prevalence of antibiotic‐resistant bacteria in animal environments will protect both animal and public health.     

草地生态系统服务功能及其价值评估方法研究

草地不仅是畜牧业的生产基地,而且是生态安全屏障保护和牧民生活与草原文化传承的基础,具有生态、生产和生活功能。然而,草地日益退化导致的生态经济问题越来越突出,评价草地生态系统服务功能的经济价值,对于制定合理的草地保护与经济开发决策具有重要意义。目前国内外广泛采用的Costanza等提出的生态系统服务价值评估方法没能充分体现出草地生态系统本质特征。因此,本研究以草地生态系统的“三生功能”为基础,综合考虑草地的地域和空间的异质性以及区域经济发展水平的差异性,选择水源涵养、侵蚀控制、废物处理、滞留沙尘、生物多样性保护、养分循环、固定CO₂、释放O₂、消减SO₂、畜牧生产、文化传承和休闲旅游12项贡献率较高的功能指标,应用生态经济学原理,建立了适宜于草地生态系统服务功能经济价值的评价体系和方法,并以藏北高寒草地为例,对该方法进行了评估验证。     

草地多功能目标管理的理论基础、技术原理及实现途径

草地具有保护地草地、放牧草地、栽培草地等草地类型多样性，动物、植物、微生物等生物资源多样性，调节功能、供给功能、支持功能和文化功能等生态系统服务和功能多样性。本研究基于生态系统多功能性概念，通过总结草地管理发展历程，提出新时代草地多功能目标管理框架。这一框架凝练出草地类型多样性、生物资源多样性和功能多样性维持等方面的基础理论；创新了草地动物、植物、微生物资源的变革性利用技术以及地表信息精准测量及遥感反演、草地食草动物利用率精准计量和草地承载力核定、营养平衡草牧业生产、生态功能提升和生态产品价值实现等方面的技术体系；探究草地生态、生产和生活等多功能优化管理路径，维系草地多功能属性、保护草地健康和可持续利用的绿色发展模式；实现区域保护自然、服务人民和永续发展目标。     

基于生态服务价值的三江源生态工程成本效益分析

为评价三江源生态保护和建设工程的经济效益,本研究通过核算2004年和2012年三江源区生态系统水源涵养、土壤保持、防风固沙、固碳释氧、净化大气环境、牧草供给和水供给等主要服务物质量和价值量,在采用模型模拟变量控制法厘定生态工程与气候因子对生态成效贡献率的基础上,开展了三江源生态保护和建设工程的成本效益分析。结果表明：2004-2012年间,三江源区总生态系统服务价值增加2 372.23亿元。其中自然保护区内单位面积生态系统服务价值的增加比例高于非自然保护区;生态工程的实施对防风固沙服务的影响最大,其次为土壤保持服务;三江源生态保护和建设工程的生态效益显著,使生态系统服务价值增加1 035.32亿元,占增加总量的43.64%,其投入产出比为1：13.73,净经济效益为959.92亿元。虽然三江源生态保护和建设工程一期项目的实施使得生态系统退化趋势得到初步遏制,并逐渐向良性方向发展,但生态系统全面恢复仍需一定时间。     

Eradication of targeted species of internal parasites

Eradication can be defined as the permanent reduction to zero of the incidence of infection caused by a specific agent as a result of deliberate efforts. Eradication strategies must be designed to increase access to and utilization of veterinary and animal health support services beyond that normally achieved by routine services. Consequently, before undertaking an eradication program, proponents must be certain that they can be sure of a commitment of resources sufficient to complete the project. A helminth eradication campaign would require the application of anthelmintics to all hosts at a level aimed at killing heterozygote resistant individuals. This strategy runs counter to the prevailing opinion that resistance to chemicals will always occur and control schemes should accept some production loss by letting a proportion of parasites escape selection (in refugia) and thereby increase the useful life of the chemical. Under certain circumstances, environmental constraints may make some species of parasitic nematodes vulnerable to an eradication program. Anthelmintics have been used to exploit these constraints in past control programs and have lead to local eradication of several species of gastro-intestinal parasitic nematodes. Also, there are at present eradication programs for nematode parasites of human that are based on anthelmintic treatment. However, the suppressive pesticide treatment required to bring about the virtual elimination of species is a high-risk strategy and should only be undertaken if eradication is an achievable goal. It is also important to plan an exit strategy if eradication fails.     

Quarantine, exports and animal disease in Australia 1901-2010

The Constitution forming the Australian Commonwealth Government on 1 January 1901 provided that animal and animal products imported into and exported from Australia would be under the authority of the national government. By mutual agreement, the Quarantine Act 1908 provided for the states to continue the delivery of services under contract until 1995 when the Commonwealth took back full responsibility for quarantine services. In the 1940s, 50s and 60s there were world pandemics of livestock diseases and Australia ceased the import of many species. By the 1970s, the livestock industries sought relaxation of import restrictions to gain access to diversified genetic stock. By the use of new technologies, many species can now be imported into Australia through tight importation protocols. With the advent of the World Trade Organization and implementation of the Sanitary Phytosanitary Agreement, Australia has developed a risk-based framework to support the development of import conditions for animals and animal products. Australia's 'Acceptable Level of Protection' has been set to provide a low likelihood of disease entry. Being an island continent, Australia can apply strong controls over imports and exports of all commodities and relatively few outbreaks of exotic animal diseases have occurred by breach of quarantine, but the outbreaks of rinderpest in 1923 and equine influenza in 2007 were notable exceptions.     

Ecological role of the giant root‐rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) in the Afroalpine ecosystem

Rodents with prevailing subterranean activity usually play an important role in the ecosystems of which they are a part due to the combined effect of herbivory and soil perturbation. This is the case for the giant root‐rat Tachyoryctes macrocephalus endemic to the Afroalpine ecosystem of the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. We studied the impact of root‐rats on various ecosystem features within a 3.5‐ha study locality dominated by Alchemilla pasture, which represents an optimal habitat for this species, in 2 periods of a year. The root‐rats altered plant species composition, reducing the dominant forb, Alchemilla abyssinica, while enhancing Salvia merjame and a few other species, and reduced vegetation cover, but not the fresh plant biomass. Where burrows were abandoned by root‐rats, other rodents took them over and A. abyssinica increased again. Root‐rat burrowing created small‐scale heterogeneity in soil compactness due to the backfilling of some unused burrow segments. Less compacted soil tended to be rich in nutrients, including carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus, which likely affected the plant growth on sites where the vegetation has been reduced as a result of root‐rat foraging and burrowing.     

Transnational Ecosystem Services: The Potential of Habitat Conservation for Waterfowl Through Recreational Hunting Activities

This article explores transnational ecosystem services in North America, provided by winter habitat for waterfowl in western Mexico coastal lagoons, and the hunting industry supported by these birds in the United States. This article shows that the number of waterfowl harvested in the United States is related to the abundance of waterfowl wintering in Mexico. On average, this flow of ecosystem services annually yields US$ 4.68 million in hunting stamp sales in the western United States. A demand curve, fitted to duck hunting licenses as a function of stamp price and previous-year waterfowl harvest, estimated US$3–6 million in consumer surplus produced in addition to governmental stamp sales revenue. This strongly suggests that waterfowl wintering habitat in western Mexico is economically valuable to U.S. hunters. Because hunters may benefit substantially from these habitats they may be willing to pay for conservation efforts in western Mexico that can result in transnational benefits received in the United States.     

Helium‐oxygen gas‐carrier mixture (heliox): a review of physics and potential applications in veterinary medicine

Background – To review the physics of helium with regard to airway physiology, as well as known human and potential veterinary applications of administration of inhaled helium‐oxygen gas‐carrier mixture (heliox). Data Sources – Human and veterinary studies. Human Data Synthesis – Helium‐oxygen mixtures have been used in human medicine for over 70 years as an adjunct therapy in various upper and lower respiratory disorders. Helium's low density promotes laminar flow through partially obstructed airways, resulting in a decreased work of breathing. Veterinary Data Synthesis – Little to no evidence‐based medicine exists to support or oppose the use of heliox in veterinary species. However, domestic animal species and humans share several common pathophysiologic aspects of various obstructive airway disorders. Thus, veterinary patients may also ultimately and significantly benefit from this novel therapy. Conclusion – Prospective studies are needed in veterinary medicine to determine the utility of heliox in clinical scenarios.     

Compositional Shifts in Forb and Butterfly Communities Associated with Kentucky Bluegrass Invasions

Rangeland management strategies impact biodiversity, the quality and quantity of ecosystem services, and overall rangeland resiliency. Previous management strategies, coupled with climate change, have led to widespread invasion by Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis; bluegrass) in the Northern Great Plains, United States. Bluegrass invasions are expected to have detrimental impacts on biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services provided by rangelands. Yet none have investigated how bluegrass invasions influence pollinator populations, which are a prominent conservation concern and provide ecosystem services. We measured the impact of bluegrass invasion on mixed-grass prairie forb and butterfly communities. Obligate grassland butterflies, those that rely on grasslands, decreased as bluegrass cover increased, including the threatened Hesperia dacotae. Conversely, the abundance of facultative grassland butterflies, those found in grasslands but not fully dependent on them for their life history, increased as bluegrass increased. Moreover, plant species diversity and flowering forb species richness decreased as bluegrass cover increased. Overall, bluegrass invasion led to butterfly and plant community simplification, signaling a loss of biodiversity and potentially ecosystem services. Our research is the first to quantify how grassland butterflies and the floral resources they depend on are negatively impacted by bluegrass invasion. Resource managers should adopt management strategies that reduce bluegrass cover and improve nectar and host resources for obligate grassland butterflies. Management choices that removed disturbance regimes inherent to the Northern Great Plains (i.e., fire and grazing) led to bluegrass dominance in the region. Therefore, restoring disturbance regimes may be one way to reduce bluegrass and benefit pollinator populations.     

Grand Challenges for Resilience-Based Management of Rangelands

The social and ecological contexts for rangeland management are changing rapidly, prompting a reevaluation of science, management, and their relationship. We argue that progression from steady-state management to ecosystem management has served the rangeland profession well, but that further development toward resilience-based management is required to ensure that ecosystem services are sustained in an era of rapid change. Resilience-based management embraces the inevitability of change and emphasizes that management should seek to guide change to benefit society. The objectives of this forum are to: 1) justify the need for adopting resilience-based management, 2) identify the challenges that will be encountered in its development and implementation, and 3) highlight approaches to overcoming these challenges. Five grand challenges confronting the adoption of resilience-based management, based upon the insights of 56 rangeland researchers who have contributed to this special issue, were identified as: 1) development of knowledge systems to support resilience-based management, 2) improvement of ecological models supporting science and management, 3) protocols to assess and manage tradeoffs among ecosystem services, 4) use of social-ecological system models to integrate diverse knowledge sources, and 5) reorganization of institutions to support resilience-based management. Resolving the challenges presented here will require the creation of stronger partnerships between ecosystem managers, science organizations, management agencies, and policymakers at local, regional, and national scales. A realistic near-term goal for achieving such partnerships is to initiate and support collaborative landscape projects. The creation of multiscaled social learning institutions linked to evolving knowledge systems may be the best approach to guide adaptation and transformation in rangelands in the coming century.     

Introduced and Invasive Species in Novel Rangeland Ecosystems: Friends or Foes?

Globally, new combinations of introduced and native plant and animal species have changed rangelands into novel ecosystems. Whereas many rangeland stakeholders (people who use or have an interest in rangelands) view intentional species introductions to improve forage and control erosion as beneficial, others focus on unintended costs, such as increased fire risk, loss of rangeland biodiversity, and threats to conservation efforts, specifically in nature reserves and parks. These conflicting views challenge all rangeland stakeholders, especially those making decisions on how best to manage novel ecosystems. To formulate a conceptual framework for decision making, we examined a wide range of novel ecosystems, created by intentional and unintentional introductions of nonnative species and land-use–facilitated spread of native ones. This framework simply divides decision making into two types: 1) straightforward–certain, and 2) complex–uncertain. We argue that management decisions to retain novel ecosystems are certain when goods and services provided by the system far outweigh the costs of restoration, for example in the case of intensively managed Cenchrus pastures. Decisions to return novel ecosystems to natural systems are also certain when the value of the system is low and restoration is easy and inexpensive as in the case of biocontrol of Opuntia infestations. In contrast, decisions whether to retain or restore novel ecosystems become complex and uncertain in cases where benefits are low and costs of control are high as, for example, in the case of stopping the expansion of Prosopis and Juniperus into semiarid rangelands. Decisions to retain or restore novel ecosystems are also complex and uncertain when, for example, nonnative Eucalyptus trees expand along natural streams, negatively affecting biodiversity, but also providing timber and honey. When decision making is complex and uncertain, we suggest that rangeland managers utilize cost–benefit analyses and hold stakeholder workshops to resolve conflicts.     

Economic values of a public outreach and education program for aquatic invasive species prevention

Aquatic invasive species (AIS) are often impossible to eradicate from an ecosystem once breeding populations are established and widely dispersed. After establishment, control programs become one of the only options available to managers. Agencies are using public outreach programs to increase public awareness and prevent new introductions. This study employed the contingent valuation method to quantify boaters’ willingness to pay (WTP) for public outreach programs. On average, Michigan boaters were willing to pay $20.68 per year for AIS-prevention education, and total economic benefits at the population level were calculated at US$16.74 million. From a cost–benefit perspective, WTP benefits far outweigh aggregated federal, state, and nonprofit costs by a wide margin. One-time exposure to AIS education materials and perception of AIS threats did not affect WTP. Long-term program impacts and the economic benefits of resulting behavior change are important areas for future research. Managerial and policy-related implications are also discussed.