Challenges and Potentials for Soil Organic Carbon Sequestration in Forage and Grazing Systems

Forage and grazing (FG) systems can store a substantial amount of soil organic carbon (SOC) under appropriate land use management and reduce atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. Increasing SOC levels along with many interlinked ecosystem services are essential for increased productivity and sustainability of FG lands (FGLs). Although adoption of improved management practices (MPs) that support SOC sequestration (SOC_q) is necessary, clear understandings of challenges and opportunities which are sometimes unique to individual FGLs, are also important for implementation of MPs. The objective of this forum paper is to explore the latest scientific knowledge on opportunities to address major challenges for increasing SOC_q in FGLs. In intensively managed FGLs where the goal is often to maximize yields, lands are heavily fertilized and thus, usually drive towards SOC loss. Diversifications of both forage and grazing species along with strategic grazing plans have been proven as effective MPs for increasing SOC_q. However, challenge of maintaining productivity levels still remains. Implementing improved grazing for nutrient cycling and integrating forage diversification for increased biodiversity are found to improve soil health attributes, which are critical for SOC_q. However, to achieve this, we also need to consider site- and soil- specific factors. Extreme climatic events often lead to a decline in soil fertility status, SOC_q and overall productivity of FGL systems. To address these challenges, uses of models to simulate the FGL systems and have definite choices of suitable MPs are helpful. However, we must be able to access a wide range of datasets to develop system-level adaption strategies that are effective in mitigating these adverse effects. Ultimately, participatory research with novel views and improved perceptions based on the value of SOCq and long-term benefits of the implementation of the best MPs and developing education and outreach materials to enrich the producers’ knowledge gaps are helpful for climate-resilient FGL systems.     

Influence of 90 Years of Protection From Grazing on Plant and Soil Processes in the Subalpine of the Wasatch Plateau,USA

Human communities in the Intermountain West depend heavily on subalpine rangelands because of their importance in providing water for irrigation and forage for wildlife and livestock. In addition, many constituencies are looking to managed ecosystems to sequester carbon in plant biomass and soil C to reduce the impact of anthropogenic CO₂ on climate. This work builds on a 90-year-old grazing experiment in mountain meadows on the Wasatch Plateau in central Utah. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of 90 years of protection from grazing on processes controlling the input, output, and storage of C in subalpine rangelands. Long-term grazing significantly reduced maximum biomass in all years compared with plots within grazing exclosures. For grazed plots, interannual variability in aboveground biomass was correlated with July precipitation and temperature (R² = 0.51), while there was a weak correlation between July precipitation and biomass in ungrazed plots (R² = 0.24). Livestock grazing had no statistically significant impacts on total soil C or particulate organic matter (POM), although grazing did increase active soil C and decrease soil moisture. Grazing significantly increased the proportion of total soil C pools that were potentially mineralizable in the laboratory, with soils from grazed plots evolving 4.6% of total soil C in 1 year while ungrazed plots lost 3.3% of total soil C. Volumetric soil moisture was consistently higher in ungrazed plots than grazed plots. The changes in soil C chemistry may have implications for how these ecosystems will respond to forecast climate change. Because grazing has resulted in an accumulation of easily decomposable organic material, if temperatures warm and summer precipitation increases as is anticipated, these soils may become net sources of CO₂ to the atmosphere creating a positive feedback between climate change and atmospheric CO₂.     

Land Management History of Canadian Grasslands and the Impact on Soil Carbon Storage

Grasslands represent a large potential reservoir in storing carbon (C) in plant biomass and soil organic matter via C sequestration, but the potential greatly depends on how grasslands are managed, especially for livestock and wild animal grazing. Positive and negative grazing effects on soil organic carbon have been reported by various studies globally, but it is not known if Canadian grasslands function as a source or a sink for atmospheric C under current management practices. This article examines the effect of grassland management on carbon storage by compiling historical range management facts and measurements from multiple experiments. Results indicate that grazing on grasslands has contributed to a net C sink in the top 15-cm depth under current utilization regimes with a removal rate of CO₂ at 0.19 ±  Mg · C · ha^-1 · yr^-1 from the atmosphere during recent decades, and net C sequestration was estimated at 5.64 ±  Mg · C · ha^-1 on average. Naturalization of 2.3 M ha of previously cultivated grasslands in the 1930s has also led to C sequestration in the Canadian prairies but has likely abated as the pool has saturated. Efforts made by researchers, policymakers, and the public has successfully led to the restoration of the Canadian prairies to a healthier state and to achieve considerable C sequestration in soils since their severe deterioration in the 1930s. In-depth analysis of management, legislation, and agricultural programs is urgently needed to place the focus on maintaining range health and achieving more C storage in soils, particularly when facing the reduced potential for further C sequestration.     

Pathways of Grazing Effects on Soil Organic Carbon and Nitrogen

Grazing modifies the structure and function of ecosystems, affecting soil organic carbon (SOC) storage. Although grazing effects on some ecosystem attributes have been thoroughly reviewed, current literature on grazing effects on SOC needs to be synthesized. Our objective was to synthesize the effects of grazing on SOC stocks in grasslands, establishing the major mechanistic pathways involved. Additionally, and because of its importance for carbon (C) biogeochemistry, we discuss the controls of soil organic nitrogen (N) stocks. We reviewed articles analyzing grazing effects on soil organic matter (SOM) stocks by comparing grazed vs. ungrazed sites, including 67 paired comparisons. SOC increased, decreased, or remained unchanged under contrasting grazing conditions across temperature and precipitation gradients, which suggests that grazing influences the factors that control SOC accumulation in a complex way. However, our review also revealed some general patterns such as 1) root contents (a primary control of SOC formation) were higher in grazed than in their ungrazed counterparts at the driest and wettest sites, but were lower at sites with intermediate precipitation (~400 mm to 850 mm); 2) SOM C:N ratios frequently increased under grazing conditions, which suggests potential N limitations for SOM formation under grazing; and 3) bulk density either increased or did not change in grazed sites. Nearly all sites located in the intermediate precipitation range showed decreases or no changes in SOC. We grouped previously proposed mechanisms of grazing control over SOC into three major pathways that can operate simultaneously: 1) changes in net primary production (NPP pathway), 2) changes in nitrogen stocks (nitrogen pathway), and 3) changes in organic matter decomposition (decomposition pathway). The relative importance of the three pathways may generate variable responses of SOC to grazing. Our conceptual model suggests that rangeland productivity and soil carbon sequestration can be simultaneously increased by management practices aimed at increasing N retention at the landscape level.     

基于DNDC模型的高寒草甸土壤有机碳含量动态研究

研究发现以气温升高为主导的气候变化严重影响高寒草甸土壤有机碳含量的动态变化,然而,关于气候变化和放牧对土壤有机碳的耦合效应知之甚少。本研究采用增温-放牧试验结合DNDC(denitrification-decomposition)模型,检测气候变化和放牧对青藏高原高寒草甸土壤有机碳含量的影响,并评估气候变化和放牧对土壤有机碳含量变化的贡献率。结果表明:气候变化对土壤有机碳产生负面影响;放牧强度通过增加践踏、落叶和粪便返还影响土壤有机碳含量。温度、降水结合放牧强度,解释了高寒草甸土壤有机碳含量变化的63.4%。气候变化是导致土壤有机碳波动的主要因素,该因素解释了土壤有机碳变化的61.9%。相比之下,放牧强度解释了其变化的1.6%。持续的气候变化和放牧会影响土壤有机碳的动态变化,进而影响草地生态系统的服务功能。草地生态系统管理应考虑到潜在的气候变化,以实现该系统的可持续发展。     

围封与放牧对土壤微生物和酶活性的影响

以阿拉善高原微温干旱温带半荒漠类草地为对象,研究了围封与放牧对土壤微生物量碳、氮及土壤酶活性的影响,旨在为荒漠区退化草地的恢复与重建提供科学依据。结果表明,1）围封与放牧地土壤微生物量碳含量无显著差异（P＞0.05）,而围封样地内土壤微生物量氮含量显著高于放牧样地（P＜0.05）,从而使得其土壤微生物量碳氮比显著低于放牧样地,且围封与放牧条件下不同土层的土壤微生物量碳、氮含量变化规律均为表层（0~10 cm）土壤高于下层（10~20 cm）土壤。2）围封样地表层土壤脲酶和碱性磷酸酶的活性均高于放牧样地,下层土壤的碱性磷酸酶的活性也高于放牧样地,而脲酶活性则显著低于放牧样地。对于土壤蔗糖酶活性,围封样地仅下层土壤显著高于放牧样地,而表层土壤无差异。另外,围封和放牧条件下3种酶的活性在不同土层间的高低规律也不一致。3）围封与放牧条件下土壤微生物量碳和氮含量与土壤酶活性的关系表现不同,围封条件下,仅土壤微生物量碳含量与土壤脲酶活性呈显著正相关,而与土壤蔗糖酶活性呈显著负相关。放牧条件下,土壤微生物量碳和氮均与土壤脲酶活性呈显著负相关,而与蔗糖酶和碱性磷酸酶活性呈显著正相关。另外,土壤微生物量碳氮比与脲酶活性在放牧条件下也呈显著正相关性。     

Profitability of Carbon Sequestration in Western Rangelands of the United States

Concerns over climate change have increased interest in carbon sequestration in agricultural lands. While the per-hectare carbon capture potential of rangelands is less than either cropland or forests, existing research suggests modest changes in carbon storage on rangelands can potentially alter the global carbon cycle. This paper examines the potential firm-level revenues from voluntary carbon offset programs, such as the Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX) Rangeland Soil Carbon Offset program. We estimate revenues for short-term voluntary offsets given historical prices and prices projected with potential cap-and-trade legislation. We also estimate revenues assuming 100-yr offsets are required to meet international sequestration standards. Simulation results indicate a relatively wide range of modest revenues from recent CCX contracts and carbon prices. The analysis suggests that recent carbon prices or low-end projected prices from cap-and-trade legislation are not likely to encourage producer participation. Medium and high carbon price projections for cap-and-trade legislation may make carbon sequestration a more attractive option for rangeland managers, but given potential requirements for projects to meet international guidelines for greenhouse gas offset projects, many issues remain before range managers may be interested in carbon sequestration as an enterprise.     

不同利用方式对贝加尔针茅草原土壤活性有机碳的影响

土壤活性有机碳能够准确反映土壤有效性,表征土壤质量变化,是探索可持续草地管理措施的关键指标之一。以内蒙古贝加尔针茅草原为研究对象,采用围封、放牧和刈割野外控制试验,探讨不同利用方式对土壤有机碳（SOC）和活性有机碳的影响,发现不同利用方式下土壤SOC含量表现为围封>刈割>放牧,其中围封区和刈割区土壤SOC含量显著大于放牧区,围封区与刈割区土壤SOC含量差异不显著,在土壤活性有机碳中土壤可溶性有机碳（DOC）含量表现为放牧>围封>刈割。土壤微生物量碳（MBC）和土壤易氧化有机碳（ROC）含量均表现为围封>刈割>放牧,围封区与刈割区土壤MBC和土壤ROC平均含量差异不显著,且均显著大于放牧区。土壤MBC、ROC和SOC之间呈极显著相关性（P<0.01）。土壤ROC和土壤MBC与土壤全氮和土壤全磷呈极显著相关性（P<0.01）。围封与刈割有利于土壤SOC、MBC、ROC的提升,放牧对土壤DOC有一定累积作用。围封和刈割增强了土壤SOC的稳定性,活性有机碳与土壤有机碳和土壤理化性质密切相关,能够敏感地反映土壤有机碳的变化。     

围封对天山北坡荒漠草地土壤有机碳的影响

以天山北坡中段退化荒漠草地为研究对象,通过分析封育与放牧对草地土壤有机碳、易氧化碳、微生物量碳含量及活性有机碳的分配比例的影响,以揭示土壤质量的变化。结果表明：禁牧封育5年后草地土壤有机碳及其活性组分含量低于放牧草地。与封育草地相比,在5～10 cm放牧草地土壤有机碳、微生物量碳及MBC/SOC显著升高（P<0.05）,分别增加了0.81 g·kg^-1,34.12 mg·kg^-1,0.59%;土壤易氧化碳含量及ROC/SOC在10～15 cm土层差异均达显著水平（P<0.05）。可见,荒漠草地在封育5年后土壤质量降低,因此,应该实行合理的围封-放牧体系,更有利于退化荒漠草地生态系统的恢复。     

不同放牧方式对荒漠草原土壤碳氮储量及固持的影响

研究放牧对草地碳氮储量及固持的影响对草地科学管理具有重要意义。以宁夏荒漠草原为对象,研究了封育、自由放牧和暖季轮牧下0～40 cm土壤有机碳和全氮储量及碳氮固持特征。结果表明：1)经过5年放牧,土壤碳氮含量暖季轮牧最高,分别为5.66±0.32 g·kg-1和0.32±0.01 g·kg^-1,自由放牧最低。随土层的加深,有机碳含量在暖季轮牧处理中增加,封育和自由放牧变化不显著;氮含量3种处理垂直变化均不显著。自由放牧碳氮比最高,达到26.98±1.05,暖季轮牧最低。0～40 cm土壤碳氮储量表现为暖季轮牧>封育>自由放牧。2)以封育为对照,碳氮固持量和固持速率呈暖季轮牧>封育>自由放牧。3)Pearson相关性分析表明,土壤碳氮储量、固持与地上生物量呈显著相关性(P<0.05);与物种多样性呈极显著正相关(P<0.01,P<0.001)。研究认为,从土壤碳氮储量及固持考虑,暖季轮牧的草地利用方式更有利于研究区荒漠草原碳汇能力提升和草地持续发展。     

放牧强度对内蒙古荒漠草原土壤碳氮及其稳定同位素的影响

为了探究不同放牧强度对荒漠草原土壤碳氮元素的影响,选取内蒙古希拉穆仁荒漠草原为研究对象,分析3种放牧强度(无牧、轻度放牧、重度放牧)对0～50 cm 土壤有机碳(Soil organic carbon,SOC)、全氮(Total nitrogen,TN)、稳定碳、氮同位素(δ13C,δ15N)的影响.结果表明:随着放牧...     

封育草地与弃耕地土壤碳氮固持及固持速率动态

研究植被恢复对土壤碳氮动态的影响,对了解陆地生态系统碳氮循环,应对全球温室效应具有重要意义。本研究以黄土高原丘陵区封育草地和弃耕地为对象,分别以放牧草地和农田为参照,对比分析了封育14年草地和弃耕地0~300 cm土层土壤有机碳(SOC)和土壤全氮(STN)储量、固持量及固持速率。结果表明,封育草地和弃耕地显著增加SOC储量,并且二者封育14年后SOC储量相同;在0~200 cm土壤中,封育14年草地与弃耕地STN储量相对于对照并无增加,0~300 cm土壤中,封育14年草地STN储量显著高于弃耕地(P<0.05);弃耕地SOC固持及固持速率显著高于封育草地,封育14年弃耕地SOC固持主要发生在0~140 cm表层土壤;0~100 cm土壤弃耕地STN固持及固持速率显著高于封育草地,0~300 cm土壤弃耕地STN固持及固持速率显著低于封育草地。以上结果表明,封育和弃耕均可显著提高土壤碳储量,并未明显提升土壤氮储量,弃耕地有较高的SOC固持量及固持速率。     

放牧对典型草原土壤有机碳及全氮的影响

以内蒙古锡林河流域羊草Leymus chinensis典型草原作为研究对象,研究不同放牧强度及放牧制度下,土壤有机碳、全氮的含量差异,结果表明:1)土壤有机碳含量大体表现为常年放牧地高于混合放牧地,且差异明显。常年放牧地表现为轻牧重牧中牧围封未放牧地,混合放牧地除"轻牧+割草"与"中牧+割草"在20~30 cm土层深度表现出显著差异以外,各个放牧强度间差异均不显著。土壤有机碳含量随着土层深度的增加而降低。2)土壤全氮在不同的放牧梯度间及不同土层深度间的变化趋势与土壤有机碳大体相同,趋势表现为轻牧重牧中牧围封未放牧地,而混合放牧地的变化趋势比较复杂,相比较常年放牧地,混合放牧地的全氮含量要低。全氮含量随着土层深度的增加而降低。研究结果表明重牧下有机碳含量要高于中牧,这可能是由于随着放牧强度的增加,草原植被C4植物增多而引起的。     

草原碳汇管理对策

我国约4亿hm²草原,草原具有强大碳汇功能,但人们对草原碳汇管理的认识和研究还不足。综述了CO₂、温度及降雨等气象因子和草原开垦、放牧、割草、施肥、人工草地建植等草地管理措施对草原碳汇功能的影响及其作用机制,以期对我国草原管理实践提供借鉴。温度和降雨的改变对不同类型草原的碳汇功能影响不同,以碳汇为目标的草地管理,必须综合考虑气候变化对碳固持的影响。草地退化生产力下降,土壤理化环境恶化,土壤有机碳含量降低,退化草地具有较大的固碳潜力,采用合理的草原管理措施能够极大的提高草地有机碳含量,据估算全国重度退化草地如果全面实施围栏封育措施,固碳潜力每年达12.01 Tg C。过度放牧改变了草原植被群落结构,降低净初级生产力,C∶N增加,土壤氮的亏缺限制碳的固持,枯落物的量也降低,减少有机质的形成,草原碳汇功能降低。合理放牧管理增强草原碳汇功能。草原开垦减少枯落物的输入增加了土壤侵蚀,使土壤有机质暴露在空气中,土壤有机质的氧化分解加快,降低土壤有机质含量。高强度的刈割利用不利于草地碳汇,刈割利用要选择合适的刈割时间和刈割高度,并通过粪尿或施肥等管理措施,返还割草地损失的营养物质。施肥、补播、耕翻和灌溉等改良措施促进草原植被更新,提高草原生产力,增强草原固碳能力。农田弃耕和围封禁牧增强草地碳汇功能,配合施肥补播等其他管理措施,可以促进植被恢复,提高其固碳效率。退耕还草增加草原碳汇,牧草固碳能力强弱为:豆禾混播＞多年生豆科牧草＞多年生禾本科牧草＞一年生禾草。     

AM真菌在草地生态系统碳汇中的重要作用

草地生态系统是陆地生态系统的重要组成部分,在全球碳储量中占有重要的地位,而广泛存在于草地生态系统中的丛枝菌根(arbuscular mycorrhizal,简称AM)真菌在草地生态系统的碳汇中起着重要的作用。本文从AM真菌功能多样性出发,从以下几个方面阐述AM真菌在草地生态系统碳汇中的作用:1)AM真菌对草地生态系统净初级生产力(NPP)的影响。2)AM真菌对土壤碳库变化的影响。3)AM真菌对CO₂浓度升高和大气氮沉降增加的响应。4)草地放牧利用、管理措施等干扰影响AM真菌,从而对草地生态系统碳循环产生影响。综合分析了AM真菌在草地生态系统中的作用机制,旨在为准确全面地评估碳汇现状、测算固碳速率、预估碳储量和应对全球气候变化提供方法和参考依据。     

饲草作物对土壤健康与农业可持续发展的作用

饲草作物是指为增加土壤肥力,防止土壤侵蚀,累积和保护土层,增加土壤养分和含水率以及提高土壤质量而种植的植物。饲草作物为农田土壤提供了诸多益处,其还有助于增加和维持土壤中的微生物多样性。本文对多种饲草作物对土壤特性的作用,如土壤含水量、土壤微生物的活动、土壤碳固存、土壤硝态氮淋失、土壤水分和土壤健康等进行综述。饲草作物的选择通常取决于其自身对土壤的作用,其他考虑因素还包括天气条件,播种时间,是否为豆科植物以及杀灭饲草作物的时间和方法。研究表明,饲草作物也可用于减缓气候变化,抑制作物中的杂草,增加可交换的营养物质如Mg2+和K+,具有一定的经济性。另外,覆盖作物也会存在一些问题,包括杀灭覆盖作物的方法,其可能成为病原体的寄主,饲草作物的再生性以及短期收益不明显。尽管有一些局限,饲草作物仍被认为可以明显改善土壤整体健康状况,为主栽作物提供可持续的生态环境。     

不同放牧管理模式对高寒草甸草原土壤呼吸特征的影响

为探讨不同放牧管理模式对青藏高原东缘高寒草甸草原土壤呼吸速率的影响,于2014年5－10月用土壤呼吸测量仪（LI-8100A,LI-COR,Lincoln,USA）对禁牧（NG）、全生长季休牧（RG）、传统夏季休牧（TG）和全年连续放牧（CG）4种不同放牧管理模式高寒草甸草原土壤呼吸速率进行测定,并分析了土壤呼吸速率与其影响因子间的关系。结果表明：1）不同放牧管理模式高寒草甸草原土壤呼吸速率月动态均表现出先增加后降低的变化态势,峰值出现在8月,除 CG 外,8月显著高于其余月份;2）在整个生长季,NG,RG 和 TG 平均土壤呼吸速率显著高于 CG,其中,NG 和 RG 间无显著差异,但均显著高于 TG;3）除 CG 外,NG,RG 和 TG 土壤呼吸速率与土壤温度呈显著正相关,Q10值排序为：NG＞RG＞TG＞CG;4）土壤质量含水量对土壤呼吸速率的影响存在一个临界值,30％左右为临界值,在此之前二者呈正相关,此后呈负相关;5）地上、地下生物量均与土壤呼吸速率呈显著正相关。在保障牧民收入稳定的前提下,为实现草地资源的可持续利用与牧草的更新,相对于全年禁牧,全生长季休牧既可充分利用牧草资源,也能有效保护草地系统稳定与生态恢复,是青藏高原高寒草甸草原类草地放牧管理的理想选择。     

封育对荒漠草原土壤有机碳及其活性组分的影响

以空间序列代替时间序列的方法,选取未封育、封育3、5、7及10年的荒漠草原为对象,研究封育对荒漠草原土壤总有机碳、颗粒有机碳、水溶性有机碳和易氧化有机碳的影响。结果表明:封育对5~10 cm、10~20 cm和20~40 cm土层总有机碳影响显著(P<0.05),其含量随封育年限的延长总体呈增加的趋势,分布范围为2.24~4.52 g· kg^-1,以封育7和10年的荒漠草原较高。封育对荒漠草原土壤颗粒有机碳无显著影响(P>0.05);可溶性有机碳含量在0~5 cm、5~10 cm和20~40 cm土层随封育年限的延长呈先下降后上升的趋势,均以未封育荒漠草原最高,分别为0.59,0.49 和0.56 g·kg^-1,封育5和7年的荒漠草原较低;易氧化有机碳含量以封育7年的荒漠草原较高,总含量为2.48 g·kg^-1。封育7年是退化荒漠草原自然恢复演替过程中的一个转折。     

Trampling Disturbance of Biocrust Enhances Soil Carbon Emission

Biocrusts play an important role in the carbon cycle in arid and semiarid ecosystems. Activities such as livestock grazing can disturb ecosystem functions of biocrusts. However, it is unclear whether disturbance intensity impacts carbon emission from these biocrusts. Few studies have investigated the transformation of carbon within biocrusts after disturbance. Here, we conducted a field experiment on the Loess Plateau, China, in which we artificially simulated different intensities of trampling to examine the response of biocrust carbon emissions to disturbance. Our results demonstrate that disturbance significantly reduced biocrust coverage. The largest decreases were observed in the second through fourth intensity, which declined significantly by 12.6–17.1%. Disturbance decreased soil organic carbon content in the biocrust layer by 2.6 g kg⁻¹–3.7 g kg⁻¹ depending on the disturbance intensity. Disturbance significantly increased the soil easily oxidizable carbon (SEOC) content in the biocrust layer. The soil microbial biomass carbon (SMBC) content of the fifth intensity increased significantly by 70.3%. The soil mineralizable carbon (SMC) content of the fourth intensity increased significantly by 78.8%. Soil carbon emissions increased significantly with increasing disturbance intensity, were higher at night than during the day, and were higher in the summer than in the fall. Together, these findings indicate that the increase of carbon emission was mainly due to increases in SEOC and SMC. Trampling disturbance increases carbon emissions from biocrust soils. These losses of CO₂ from biocrust soils after disturbance may substantially reduce the biocrust contribution to the soil carbon budget.     

毛乌素沙地退牧还草对土壤性质的影响——以乌审旗为例

对北方重要生态区草原退牧还草工程区土壤有机碳（SOC）、全氮（TN）和土壤容重的研究结果表明,退化草地经围栏禁牧和补播后,由于有效消除了放牧的干扰,草地得到了休养生息,开始不断改善和恢复。土壤表层（0—20cm）的有机碳和全氮在禁牧加补播区和放牧区没有显著差异,但都显著低于禁牧区的草地。土壤容重则表现为：相同土壤质地,放牧区高于禁牧区。综合评价显示,在该地区禁牧是较好的工程实施措施。