Effects of nutrient levels on growth and quality of radish (Raphanus sativus L.) grown on different substrates

Radish grown in sand or granulated rockwool was irrigated with nutrient solutions of different concentrations. The EC value in the root environment aimed at ranged between 1.0 and 6.0 dS/m at 25°C. Four crops were grown, three crops in the spring‐summer season and one crop in winter. For the spring‐summer grown radish highest plant weights were obtained with EC values in the root environment of about 2 dS/m. In the winter grown crop an EC value between 2 and 4 gave highest plant weights. With too low EC values the yield reduction was more serious in winter than in spring‐summer. High EC values reduced yield especially in the spring‐summer season. In winter, the number of blind plants was strongly affected by the EC value. The bulb/leaf ratio was higher on sand than on rockwool and increased with EC value. Sponginess appeared in the spring‐summer crops and was reduced by increasing EC values. The mineral absorption of the radish was equal for the different crops. The water absorption, however, differed a factor four between winter and spring‐summer. So the nutrient absorption concentration in winter was about four times higher in winter than in spring‐summer.     

河套灌区土壤水盐和作物生长的HYDRUS-EPIC模型分布式模拟

土壤水盐是影响干旱灌区作物产量的主要因素。分布式模型可综合考虑土壤、水文和气象因子在灌区的时空变异特征,为评估区域尺度土壤水盐与作物生长状况提供有效工具。该文以河套灌区解放闸灌域为研究区,根据气象-土壤-作物-灌溉等因子的空间分布特征进行均质单元划分,建立基于一维农业水文模型HYDRUS-EPIC的灌区尺度分布式模型。利用2012年和2013年定点观测数据(土壤水分、盐分、叶面积指数和作物产量)进行模型率定与验证;进一步应用模型以求探明现状灌溉条件下研究区土壤水盐与作物生长状况及存在的问题。结果表明:生育期内灌区根区土壤(0~100 cm)有效饱和度为0.44~0.90,基本满足作物耗水需求;根区土壤溶液平均盐分浓度为3.1~13.5 g/L,相应地作物的相对产量为0.35~1.33,土壤盐分过高成为限制研究区作物产量的主因。为调控根区土壤水盐状况,对地下水深埋区(东北部)需进行灌水量的适宜补充,宜将浅埋区(西北、西南等)地下水平均埋深控制在1.3 m以下。     

农田水盐运移与作物生长模型耦合及验证

合理定量描述土壤水盐动态及作物生长过程对于干旱灌区制定适宜的农业用水措施具有重要意义。该文以SWAP(soil water atmosphere plant)模型为基础,采用变活动节点法实现了对土壤融化期的水盐运移模拟,并在根系吸水计算中引入了基于S形函数的水盐胁迫计算方法,以修正原SWAP模型对根系吸水的模拟。进一步嵌入了参数与输入数据较少且可以模拟作物生长过程及实际产量的EPIC(environmental policy integrated calculator)作物生长模型,构建了改进的农田尺度土壤水盐动态与作物生长耦合模拟模型-SWAP-EPIC。分别采用宁夏惠农灌区春小麦和春玉米田间试验数据,对SWAP-EPIC模型田间适用性进行了检验。对比分析各层土壤水分与盐分浓度、作物生长指标(叶面积指数、地上部生物量)的模拟值与实测值,结果表明:春小麦和春玉米试验中土壤水分的平均相对误差MRE和均方根误差RMSE均接近于0且模型Nash效率系数NSE值趋近于1,水分模块模拟精度较高,盐分浓度模拟存在略微差异但总体上一致性较好,并且作物生长指标匹配良好;同时,模拟的产量和蒸散发均较为接近实际值,春小麦和春玉米产量模拟相对误差分别为4.9%和3.3%。综上,该文改进的SWAP-EPIC模型可良好地应用于寒旱区农田尺度土壤水盐运移与作物生长耦合模拟。     

极端干旱地区葡萄根系吸水数值模拟

研究成龄葡萄根系分布与吸水特征及耗水规律,能够为制定成龄葡萄灌溉制度、提出丰产与节水相协调的成龄葡萄田间水分管理模式和创建成龄葡萄水分高效利用技术体系提供技术支撑。该文在分析灌溉条件下葡萄吸水特征的基础上,建立了一维非饱和土壤水分运动的无网格数值模拟模型,并依据实测葡萄根系分布特征,获得了葡萄一维根系分布函数,将其与不同的经验根系分布函数应用于数值模型进行动态模拟。通过模拟值与土壤水分实测值的比较分析,结果表明,不同根系分布模型下土壤水分模拟差别不大,相对误差均在1%以下,但相对于其他根系分布,指数根系数分布模拟值与实测值的误差较大,因此,认为拟合的根系分布函数和无网格数值模型能很好的模拟极端干旱地区葡萄根系吸水和土壤水分运动,且在缺乏实际根长分布数据的条件下,线性根系分布和分段根系分布都可反映葡萄实际根系分布,为利用简单一维根系分布模型分析不同灌溉条件葡萄吸水特征提供参考。     

Predicting Rice Yield Under Salinity Stress Using K/Na Ratio Variable in Plant Tissue

Estimation of yield reduction in crop caused by the salinity stress is mostly based on variations of soil electrical conductivity and the severity of water stress. Crop response curves to salinity were developed without considering ion toxicity and nutritional imbalance in the plant. The objective of this study was to explore the possibility of using the ratio of the concentration of potassium by sodium in rice leaf (leaf-K/Na) to predict yield under the salinity stress. The rice (Oryza sativa L.) yield under fresh and saline condition and the leaf-K/Na related database was created. Data were collected from consecutive three seasons of a field experiment in the Africa Rice Center experimental farm in Senegal (16° 11? N, 16° 15?W). We studied the relationship between the relative yield (Y_r), a ratio of yield under the salinity stress to the potential yield and the leaf-K/Na (x). Furthermore, we did regression analyses and F-test to determine the best fitting function. Results indicate that the exponential function [i.e. Y_r = 100 exp (-b x)] was the best fitting model with the lowest root mean square error (9.683) and the highest R² value (0.90). Example applications on independent data from published papers showed relatively good predictions, suggesting that the model can be used to predict rice yield in saline soils.     

施肥促进作物水分利用机理及对产量影响的研究

在田间及盆栽试验条件下,以小麦为主要实验材料,研究了干旱下无机营养与作物产量、生长、水分利用效率及抗旱性的关系.结果表明:旱地施肥明显提高了作物产量和水分利用效率,但干旱程度明显影响了肥效的发挥;不同营养元素对作物抗旱性的影响并不相同,氮、钾营养主要通过增强作物的渗透调节和气孔调节改善作物的抗旱性,而磷营养则明显改善了作物抗旱性.最后,从作物水分关系、气孔反应、渗透调节、地上地下关系等方面对施肥提高作物产量、水分利用效率和改善抗旱性的原因进行了分析.     

Different Levels of Irrigation Water Salinity and Biochar Influence on Faba Bean Yield,Water Productivity,and Ions Uptake

Greenhouse experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of different levels of irrigation water salinity (0.5, 2.5, 5 and 7.5 dS m^?1) and wheat straw biochar (0%, 1.25%, 2.5%, and 3.75% w/w) on growth and yield of faba been using complete randomized design with three replications. Stomatal conductance (green canopy temperature) of faba bean increased (decreased) by application of biochar at each salinity level. The results showed increasing salinity to 2.5 dS m^?1 at zero biochar application increased the seed yield through osmotic adjustment, while by declining the osmotic potential, the nutritional values of biochar caused the seed yield to increase by increasing salinity to 5 dS m^?1. The root length density and root dry weight density in 0–8 cm soil layer declined under application of 3.75% w/w biochar in all salinity levels in comparison with that obtained in 2.5% w/w biochar, due to higher saline condition of the soil as result of higher biochar application. The results showed that addition of 2.5% w/w biochar can significantly mitigate salinity stress due to its high salt sorption capacity and by increasing potassium/sodium ratio in the soil. In general, since 2.5 % w/w biochar and salinity of 5 dS m^?1 increased dry seed yield and irrigation water productivity compared with that obtained in control (B₀S_0.5), these levels are recommended to improve faba bean growth and yield; however, these levels have to be evaluated under field conditions.     

Optimization of irrigation management and environmental assessment using the water cycle algorithm

Obtaining high crop yields with limited water consumption requires optimal irrigation strategies based on comprehensive studies of the parameters of plant–environment interactions. Here, we used a structural equation modelling (SEM) to assess the relationships among input irrigation factors and moderate factors to find an optimum water use efficiency (WUE) response factor, for outdoor and greenhouse cultivation of eggplant (Solanum melongena). The input irrigation factors (including irrigation interval, water salinity and environment) and the moderate factors (evapotranspiration, soil salinity, plant parameters, fruit parameters and crop yield) were used in water cycle algorithm (WCA) and genetic algorithm (GA) methods to optimize the water use efficiency. The optimization process included finding the best combination of irrigation factors and optimized eggplant cultivation. The structural equation modelling results indicate that irrigation interval negatively affected water use efficiency with a more dominant effect on plant parameters. Water salinity negatively affected the water use efficiency with a more dominant effect on soil salinity, crop yield and fruit parameters. Low salinity water was more effective than full irrigation to optimize the water use efficiency. The water cycle algorithm revealed that for outdoor cultivation, the optimal range of irrigation interval was 2–5 days and water salinity in the range of 0.8–2.2 ds/m. These factors optimized evapotranspiration (346.23–738.19 mm), soil salinity (4.16–9.45 ds/m), fruit parameters (33.81–35.12 cm) and crop yield (1715.7–2190.8 g/plant), as well as increasing the water use efficiency (3.08–4.89 g/(plant-mm)). Both the water cycle algorithm and genetic algorithm yielded very close to optimal values. Two years of repeated experiments and the closeness of the optimal values using the algorithms confirmed that the optimal amounts are reliable.     

基于多源遥感数据的艾比湖流域盐土SWAT模型参数修正

在SWAT(soil and water assessment tool)模型模拟地表分量过程中,常默认土壤剖面电导率(electrical conductivity,EC)值为0或0.1,将其应用于土壤盐渍化程度较高的流域时,不符合下垫面实际情况。为确保水文模拟逼近真实地表模拟过程,进一步提高模拟精度,该文利用GF-1号卫星16 m分辨率多光谱遥感影像结合分类回归树法反演艾比湖流域区域尺度0~100 cm土壤剖面电导率,模拟值与实测值均方根最大值误差为4.81 dS/m,相对误差最大值为15.17%。模拟值用于修正EC值,结果表明:EC值修正后的SWAT模型土壤水分模拟值,较修正前模拟值精度提高23.84个百分点。该方法在实现SWAT模型参数本地化的同时,有效提高了土壤水分模拟精度,可为土壤盐渍化区域水文模拟提供参考。     

新疆浅层暗管排水降低土壤盐分提高棉花产量

土壤盐渍化问题严重制约着干旱区农业可持续发展,为达到土壤脱盐的效果,增加作物产量,该文针对膜下滴灌棉田,采用完全随机试验方案,在装有暗管的中度和轻度盐渍化土壤上种植棉花,分析暗管降盐技术对轻度和中度盐渍化农田土壤盐分变化规律及棉花产量的影响。结果表明:轻度和中度盐渍化农田土壤盐分剖面特征均由表聚型向脱盐型变化,中度盐渍化土壤0~20 cm土层盐分下降最快,其他土层盐分含量均呈现显著下降趋势;轻度和中度土壤最高脱盐率分别为50.96%和90.89%,中度盐渍化土壤盐分可降低至轻度水平;暗管排水的电导率变化范围为7.53~11.16 dS/m,pH值变化范围7.08~8.20;轻度和中度盐渍化棉田增产幅度分别为25.3%和55%。研究表明与滴灌配套的浅层暗管排水降盐技术可有效治理盐碱土壤,提高作物产量,该研究可为盐渍化土地的可持续利用提供依据。     

RESPONSES OF WHEAT PLANTS IN TERMS OF SOIL WATER CONTENT,BULK DENSITY,SALINITY, AND ROOT GROWTH UNDER DIFFERENT PLANTING SYSTEMS AND VARIOUS IRRIGATION FREQUENCIES

The effects of irrigation water rates and seed bed shapes on changes in soil water and salinity status, bulk density, root growth and dry matter (DM) weights of wheat plants (Triticum aestivum L.) were investigated with a split plot design in a field trial in Zahak Agricultural Research Station in Sistan, Iran in 2005. Irrigation intervals after 80 and 160 mm evaporation from class A evaporation pan were used as main plot. Flat surface, single, triple, and six-row beds with a 20 cm row space were used as subplots. Each treatment was replicated four times. Volumetric soil water content and soil electrical conductivity (EC) were measured using Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) at 0 —20, 20 —40 and 40 —60 cm depths at nine different times during the growing season. Soil water contents were also measured at 0 —10 and 10 —20 cm depths using standard sampling rings at four different times. The three and six-row beds increased the EC of the saturated paste extract with the more frequent irrigation intervals in this coarse textured soil. Soil water content, DM, and root density were always greater with the more frequent irrigations (shorter irrigation intervals). Root density was greatest in 0 —20 cm depth with the single row bed treatment. Grain yield and root density were greatest with single row bed treatment due to the bed shape at the root development stage (possibly due to a reduced mechanical resistance). A greater soil water content by the short irrigation interval increased grain yield and root density via reducing mechanical resistance. With the loamy sand, bulk density and mechanical resistance increased rapidly after cultivation. Bed shape at root development stage might have enhanced root growth and the crop yields. Apparently, mechanical resistance was the most limiting factor with these loamy sand soils than salinity.     

Effects of irrigation-induced salinity and sodicity on soil microbial activity

The effects of irrigation-induced salinity and sodicity on the size and activity of the soil microbial biomass in vertic soils on a Zimbabwean sugar estate were investigated. Furrow-irrigated fields were selected which had a gradient of salinity and sugarcane yield ranging from good cane growth at the upper ends to dead and dying cane at the lower ends. Soils were sampled under dead and dying cane, poor, satisfactory and good cane growth and from adjacent undisturbed sites under native vegetation. Electrical conductivity (EC) and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) of saturation paste extracts was measured, as well as the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). There was a significant negative exponential relationship between EC and microbial biomass C, the percentage of organic C present as microbial biomass C, indices of microbial activity (arginine ammonification and fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis rates) and the activities of the exocellular enzymes β-glucosidase, alkaline phosphatase and arylsulphatase but the negative relationships with SAR and ESP were best described by linear functions. By contrast, the metabolic quotient increased with increasing salinity and sodicity, exponentially with EC and linearly with SAR and ESP.Potentially mineralizable N, measured by aerobic incubation, was also negatively correlated with EC, SAR and ESP. These results indicate that increasing salinity and sodicity resulted in a progressively smaller, more stressed microbial community which was less metabolically efficient. The exponential relationships with EC demonstrate the highly detrimental effect that small increases in salinity had on the microbial community. It is concluded that agriculture-induced salinity and sodicity not only influences the chemical and physical characteristics of soils but also greatly affects soil microbial and biochemical properties.     

Simulating NaCl accumulation in a closed hydroponic crop of zucchini: Impact on macronutrient uptake,growth, yield,and photosynthesis

Zucchini squash (Cucurbita pepo L.) plants were grown in a closed‐loop hydroponic system and supplied with nutrient solution (NS) containing NaCl at different concentrations (0.7, 3, 5, and 7 mM). The primary aim of the study was to define the relationship between the concentration of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ in the root zone solution and the respective Na⁺/water or Cl⁻/water uptake ratios (uptake concentrations, UC). A second objective was to determine the UC of macronutrients (i.e ., N, P, K, Ca, and Mg) and to test whether they are influenced by the gradual increase of the root zone salinity due to progressive NaCl accumulation. Two experiments were conducted, of which one (spring crop) was used to parameterize an existing empirical model, while the second one (autumn‐winter crop) was commissioned to test the validity of the determined model parameters. Both Cl⁻ and Na⁺ ions accumulated progressively in the root zone solution over time, showing a tendency to stabilize at final concentrations according to the corresponding NaCl treatment. The relationship between the Na⁺ and Cl⁻ concentrations in the root zone and the Na⁺/water or Cl⁻/water uptake ratios was exponential and the model parameters successfully fitted to data from crops cultivated in different growth seasons. This model may be used to monitor Na⁺ and Cl⁻ concentrations in the root environment of zucchini crops as relationships of the plant water consumption. The exposure of plants to NaCl affected the UC of N, K, Ca, and Mg, but the results for some nutrients were not consistent in both growth seasons. The measurements of plant growth characteristics (i.e ., biomass, yield, fruit quality, and photosynthesis) revealed that water resources containing up to 3 mM NaCl do not cause unacceptable yield losses in zucchini crops grown in completely closed hydroponic systems.     

小麦-玉米轮作制中氮肥效应模型的选择──经济和环境效益分析

从经济和环境效益两个方面对描述冬小麦、夏玉米轮作制中作物产量对氮肥反应的四个施肥模型（二次型,平方根,二次型＋平台,线性＋平台）进行了比较研究,结果表明,不同模型的拟合程度都较高,且拟合程度和计算的最佳产量均无显著差异,但线性＋平台和二次型＋平台模型推荐的最佳施肥量大大低于二次型模型,因而经济效益较高,研究还表明,与二次型模型相比,采用线性＋平台和二次型＋平台模型推荐和最佳施肥量,有利于维持土壤无机氮的基本平衡（而不是显著上升！）平台和二次型＋平台模型推荐的最佳施肥量,有利于维持土壤无机氮的基本平衡（而不显著上升！）,提高氮肥利用率,并使小麦、玉米茎秆含氮量降低,表现出较佳的环境效应。     

灌溉水盐度和施氮量对棉花产量和水氮利用的影响

淡水资源不足和盐渍化是干旱半干旱地区农业生产的重要限制因素,因此提高水、 肥利用效率和作物产量,减少根区盐分积累和地下水污染风险是这些地区水分养分优化管理的重要目标。通过田间试验研究了滴灌条件下灌溉水盐度和施氮量对棉花产量和水、 氮利用率的影响。试验设置灌溉水盐度和施氮量两个因素,灌溉水盐度（电导率,EC）设3个水平,为0.35（淡水）、 4.61（微咸水）和 8.04（咸水）dS/m,分别用SF、 SM和SH表示;施氮（N）量设4个水平,为0、 240、 360和480 kg/hm2,分别以N0、 N1、 N2和N3表示。研究结果表明,棉花干物质重、 氮素吸收量和氮肥利用率受灌溉水盐度、 施氮量及二者交互作用的影响显著。咸水灌溉处理（SH）棉花干物质重、 氮素吸收量、 产量和氮肥表观利用率均显著降低,而微咸水灌溉（SM）对棉花氮素吸收量和氮肥表观利用率影响不大,但干物质重和产量有所降低。施氮肥可显著促进棉花生长,增加干物质重、 氮素吸收量和产量,但随着灌溉水盐度的增加,其促进效应明显受到抑制。微咸水和咸水灌溉会导致水分渗漏增加、 蒸散量降低,增施氮肥则可显著降低水分渗漏、 增加蒸散量。微咸水灌溉水分利用率最高,其次是淡水灌溉,咸水灌溉最低;增施氮肥则可显著提高水分利用率。因此滴灌条件下,高盐度的咸水不宜用于灌溉。而短期的微咸水灌溉不会对棉花产量和水、 氮利用率产生严重的负面影响;同时,合理的配施氮肥也有助于促进棉花生长,提高棉花产量和水分利用率。     

Performance of Some Wheat Cultivars Under Saline Irrigation Water in Field Conditions

Most of the crop salt tolerance studies are often conducted in a glasshouse and are limited under field conditions. Therefore, the present research study was conducted under field conditions to evaluate the performance of six wheat cultivars at five salinity levels (EC 0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 dS m^?1) in split plot design with three replications. Increasing salinity significantly increased soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). Yield parameters of different cultivars were affected more at higher salinity levels than lower in two years. Data over two years revealed that up to EC 9 dS m^?1 cultivars PBW 658 and HD 2967 performed ???better on the absolute yield basis but PBW 621 produced ?higher relative yield. At EC 12 dS m^?1, PBW 658 produced significantly higher grain yield (4.23 t ha^?1) than cultivars HD 2967 (4.11 t ha^?1) and PBW 621 (3.99 t ha^?1); therefore, should be preferred at salinity more than 9 dS m^?1.     

Salinity and drought affect yield response of bell pepper similarly

Abstract

There is a growing realization that an increasing number of countries are approaching full utilization of their conventional water resources and that the quantity of good-quality water supplies available to agriculture is diminishing. Effects of irrigation regime and irrigation water salinity on bell pepper including yield, fruit number and quality, vegetative and root growth, evapotranspiration and water use efficiency were investigated in this study by conducting two different experiments. Six different salinity levels of irrigation water and four different irrigation regimes were used as treatments. Considering the results from irrigation water salinity experiment, it can be concluded that as soil salinity increases, water consumption, water use efficiency, yield and other vegetative growth parameters of bell pepper were decreased. A polynomial relationship between soil salinity and water consumption was observed. It was found that bell pepper is moderately sensitive to salinity with a 1.2 dS m^?1 threshold and a 10.9% slope value. In the irrigation regime experiment, limited irrigation caused decreases in water consumption, yield and vegetative growth of bell pepper. Yield response factors were close in the cases of irrigation regime (1.50) and irrigation water salinity (1.40). Total soluble solids of bell pepper were increased due to both irrigation water salinity and water application rate but not dry matter ratio. Considerable water consumption decreases because of salinity were determined. Therefore, the effect of irrigation water salinity should be considered in irrigation management to prevent excess saline water application and to protect the environment.     

小麦根系长度的估算方法与参数分析

构建小麦根系伸长过程的动态模型,并对模型参数进行定量分析,可为植株形态建成模拟和可视化显示提供关键技术。根据根系生长发育的基本结构单元,利用根系与地上部叶片生长之间的同伸关系,以生长度日为时间尺度,建立了小麦初生根、节根与分枝根发生过程的模型;通过计算不同类型根系的生理年龄,建立了不同类型根系发育阶段预测模型;以线性方程为基础,建立了不同类型根的伸长过程模型,并实现了对总根长变化过程的动态模拟。利用独立的试验资料对所建模型进行了检验,结果显示模型对小麦总根长和主轴数量的模拟值与观测值的均方根差分别为370.68 cm和1.27个,相对误差分别为0.27和0.16;对模型参数的灵敏性分析表明,模拟结果对参数变化的响应比较适中,可以较好地反映小麦根系长度和拓扑结构的动态变化过程。     

Future yield growth in field crops: what evidence exists?

Crop yields are an important determinant of C input into the soil and ultimately of soil organic carbon (SOC). Models to predict changes in SOC require crop yield and future yield growth information. In this review, yield trends for 11 major crops in the US for the period 1939–1994 are analyzed. Historical data are analyzed to detect evidence of a yield plateau. Yields are extrapolated to the year 2020 based on linear and exponential yield trends estimated in the paper. Forward-looking information on yield gaps, on the biological potential for future yield growth, and socio-economic determinants of yield growth is examined for evidence that yield growth may plateau in the near future. A linear model of yield growth indicates a compound annual rate of growth of between 0.7% and 1.3% per year for major US crops through 2020. Under an exponential model, growth rates could range up to 3% per year. This could lead to substantial increases in SOC if crop residues are retained. Biophysical limits, including those imposed by agronomic and tillage practices, do not appear to prevent rates of growth consistent with the linear model. How socioeconomic forces will affect future growth are subject to greater uncertainty.     

SOYBEAN RESPONSE AND ION ACCUMULATION UNDER SPRINKLER IRRIGATION WITH SODIUM-RICH SALINE WATER

The magnitude of crop growth and yield depends on the salinity level, the toxic ions present, and the irrigation system used. In order to study the effect of saline sprinkler irrigation on soybean growth and ionic accumulation in plant tissues a pot experiment was set up. There were three irrigation water quality treatments [electrical conductivity (EC) 0, 2, and 4 dS m^?1]. Soybean aerial biomass was 25% lower than the Control when irrigation salinity was 4 dS m^?1. Clearly salinity entering via leaves affected the grain filling stage and severely reduced soybean grain production (80% reduction) when salinity in irrigation water surpassed 2 dS m^?1. Sprinkler irrigation aggravates soybean's low salinity tolerance and restricts its cropping in such conditions. For early stages two linear relationships between leaf chloride (Cl^?) concentration (Y = 14.2–2x) or potassium (K⁺)/ sodium (Na⁺) ratio (Y = 5.3x?3.4) and soybean grain yield were found. Both relationships may be used as diagnostic tools for soybean growing under saline sprinkler irrigation.