Immunization of grouper, Epinephelus coioides, confers protection against a protozoan parasite, Cryptocaryon irritans

The present study aimed to determine whether protection is conferred by immunization of grouper, Epinephelus coioides, against a protozoan parasite, Cryptocaryon irritans. The immunization of E. coioides was carried out by a low level exposure of fish to live C. irritans theronts from predetermined number of tomonts and by an intraperitoneal injection of a vaccine consisting of formalin-killed C. irritans theronts.

Mucus titers detected by ELISA were significantly higher in fingerling and adult grouper subjected to the low level of exposure to C. irritans theronts at 3-week post-exposure compared to fish that had no previous exposure. In addition, significantly smaller tomonts were produced from adult grouper after three successive exposures than the tomonts produced after a single exposure to the parasite.

In the vaccine-immunization experiment, no mortality was monitored in fish that received high dose vaccine (100 μg/fish), while 40% cumulative mortality and 100% cumulative mortality were recorded in low dose group (10 μg/fish) and control group (PBS-injected), respectively. In the succeeding replicate, the vaccine-immunized group (high dose) had 37.5% cumulative mortality and 100% cumulative mortality for the control. In addition, a total of 1830 tomonts were collected at 5-day post-challenge from the control group while none from the vaccine-immunized group. Significantly fewer trophonts and tomonts were enumerated at 5-day and 7-day post-challenge, respectively, in the vaccine-immunized group than the control.

Results suggest that a protective immunity has been conferred on the immunized grouper as indicated by high antibody titers in the mucus of C. irritans-exposed fish and higher survival and fewer parasites in vaccine-immunized fish than the control groups. The conferred immunity played a major role in preventing or limiting the adhesion, invasion, and development of C. irritans theronts on the skin of the immunized grouper.     

Validation of the otolith increment deposition ratio using alizarin marks in juveniles of the sparid fishes, Diplodus vulgaris and D. puntazzo

Deposition rate of otolith increments was validated by two immersions in alizarin complexone 10 days apart in juvenile Diplodus vulgaris and D. puntazzo. Alizarin complexone produced a well-defined scarlet band on the otoliths of all individuals. One increment:one day ratio was found for both species.     

微生态制剂的研究及其在水产养殖中的应用

文章旨在探讨饲料中不同水平的Bio100对虎龙斑(Epinephelus fuscoguttatus♀×E.lanceolatus♂)幼鱼生长性能、消化酶活性、血清免疫指标和血清生化指标的影响。配制6种实验饲料,Bio100质量分数分别为0%(对照)、0.05%(T1)、0.10%(T2)、0.15%(T3)、0.20%(T4)和0.25%(T5)。选取均体质量为(23.33±0.33)g的虎龙斑幼鱼随机分配6组,每组3个重复,每个重复20尾鱼,置于室内玻璃钢纤维桶(500 L)中喂养。每天饲喂2次,为期8周。结果显示,随着饲料中Bio100质量分数的增加,虎龙斑的增重率和特定生长率先升高后降低,T3和T4组显著高于对照组(P < 0.05);处理组的饲料系数显著低于对照组(P < 0.05);肌肉灰分含量逐渐升高,T5组显著高于T1组和对照组(P < 0.05)。胃蛋白酶活性先升高后降低,T3组显著高于T1、T5和对照组(P < 0.05);肠道脂肪酶活性先升高后降低,T4组显著高于T1、T2和对照组(P < 0.05);各组间肠道淀粉酶活性无显著性差异(P>0.05)。处理组溶菌酶、碱性磷酸酶活性和补体3含量较对照组有一定程度提高,各组间无显著性差异(P>0.05)。饲料中Bio100水平显著影响了血清中胆固醇含量和谷丙转氨酶活性。综合分析表明,虎龙斑幼鱼饲料中Bio100的适宜添加量为0.15%。

     

Perkinsus sp. infestation in carpet-shell clams, Ruditapes decussatus (L), along the Portuguese coast. Results from a 2-year survey

This study characterises Perkinsus atlanticus disease prevalence and intensity within the economically important beds of the clam Ruditapes decussatus along the Iberian Atlantic coast. Samples were collected from five different sites along the Portuguese coast (Ria Formosa, Ria do Alvor, V.N. Milfontes, Aveiro, Lagoa de Obidos) and in Galicia (Ria de Arosa) between winter 2000/2001 and 2002/2003. The infection level was evaluated by the Ray Fluid Thioglycollate medium (RFTM) method using the body burden assay. In addition, the measure of the condition index (CI) (percentage between the edible part and the total weight of the clams) was conducted to investigate a possible correlation between this parameter and the intensity of the infection. However, no clear relationship between infection intensity and condition index (CI) could be determined although a significant decline in CI was found for heavily infected clams. Results of a 2-year survey demonstrate the presence of Perkinsus sp. in all sampling sites albeit with different intensities. Sites where human interference was minimal showed the lowest levels of infection. There were no significant differences in Perkinsus sp. infection intensity between samples collected in winter and summer, in contrast with several studies describing higher intensities at the end of the summer. Nevertheless, major differences were observed from year to year and site to site, indicating that factors other than those responsible for seasonal climatic variations might affect the prevalence and the intensity of Perkinsus sp. infection.     

福建省夏季网箱养殖鱼类主要病害情况及对策

研究了6种中草药水提取物对刺激隐核虫(Crytocaryon irritans)的体外杀灭效果,发现用7.14 mg·mL^–1的乌梅(Fructus mume)、槟榔(Areca catechu)、贯众(Dryopteris setosa)和石榴皮(Punica granatum)的水提取物分别处理幼虫5 min,幼虫死亡率达100%,用28.57 mg·mL^–1处理包囊4 h,包囊死亡率达84.1%以上。为评估喂服乌梅水提物对珍珠石斑鱼(Epinephelus lanceolatus♀×E.fuscoguttatus♂)预防刺激隐核虫病的效果,投喂第14天后对石斑鱼的增重、溶菌酶活性、补体旁路途径溶血活性和鱼体滋养体数量及死亡率进行测试和评估。结果显示,药物组石斑鱼的增重和旁路补体溶血活性与对照组没有显著性差异(P>0.05),溶菌酶活性均显著高于对照组(P<0.05),感染刺激隐核虫后滋养体数量均显著低于对照组(P<0.05);致死剂量攻毒后,药物组(11.4 g·kg^–1、6.84 g·kg^–1、3.42 g·kg^–1)和对照组鱼的成活率分别为40%、20%、46.67%和0%。结果表明乌梅对预防刺激隐核虫病具有一定的开发前景。     

不同温度对中华绒螯蟹生长及肠道微生物菌群的影响

为探究盐度对中华绒螯蟹亲体繁殖特性及所产胚胎质量的影响,开展了不同盐度 (3、6、9、12、15、18、21)下亲体的生殖产卵实验,分析了各盐度下亲体的产卵量、生殖指数和生殖力等繁殖特性及所产胚胎的卵径、重量、生化成分和脂肪酸组成。结果显示：①中华绒螯蟹产卵的最低盐度为6,在盐度6~21的范围内,中华绒螯蟹亲本的产卵量、生殖指数和生殖力均表现为先升高后下降的趋势,其中盐度18时,亲本的产卵量、生殖指数和生殖力均最高,且与其他各组都有显著差异。 ②盐度6时胚胎直径最大,平均为 (391.13±12.27) µm,显著高于其他各组。盐度12时单个胚胎湿重和干重均最高,分别为 (50.64±2.80) µg和 (14.85±0.31) µg,且与其他各组均有显著差异。 ③随盐度的增加,中华绒螯蟹胚胎的粗蛋白、总脂肪和水分含量都呈现先升高后降低的变化趋势。其中盐度15时,胚胎中粗蛋白、总脂肪和灰分含量均达到最高,平均分别为 (20.64%±3.42%)、 (8.65%±1.44%)和 (1.30%±0.22%)。各盐度下胚胎水分含量无显著差异。胚胎中胆固醇和磷脂含量均随盐度的增加呈现出先上升后下降的变化趋势,甘油三酯的含量变化则不明显。 ④中华绒螯蟹胚胎中共检测出19种脂肪酸,其中饱和脂肪酸7种,单不饱和脂肪酸4种,多不饱和脂肪酸8种。盐度6时,胚胎中C20:4n6 (ARA)、C20:5n3 (EPA)和C22:6n3 (DHA)的含量均最高,平均分别为 (0.0098%±0.0011%)、 (0.4300%±0.0044%)和 (0.0652%±0.0008%),且都显著高于其他各盐度组;盐度21时,饱和脂肪酸 (SFA)和多不饱和脂肪酸 (PUFA)总量均最高,且与其他各组有显著差异。研究表明,盐度对中华绒螯蟹所产胚胎质量有一定影响,盐度18时中华绒螯蟹的繁殖特性最好。     

Recruitment and effects of Discocotyle sagittata (Monogenea) infection on farmed trout

Farmed rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss and brown trout Salmo trutta were monitored over 3 years for infection with the blood-feeding gill fluke Discocotyle sagittata. Parasite transmission is seasonal: new infections take place during summer/autumn, and transmission is generally negligible during winter/spring. There are 2 sources of infection for naïve fish-of-the-year: limited invasion when fish are in the raceways by riverborne larvae originating external to the farm; and internally, within the farm, when 0+ fish are transferred to ponds previously occupied by older cohorts of infected fish. Thereafter, infection levels continue to increase in rainbow trout primarily through transmission within the farm. Prevalence rose to 100% in 1+ fish by the end of their second summer. In O. mykiss, mean abundance reached 194 worms/host for 1+ fish (up to 489 worms/host) and 160 worms/host for 2+ fish. By contrast, in S. trutta, parasite prevalence never exceeded 85% and, after the first year's invasions, infection levels decreased over time: in 1+ and 2+ brown trout, parasite mean abundance was < 4 (maximum 15) worms/host. We present evidence of the detrimental effects of D. sagittata on the host: high burdens are associated with pale gills, decreased body condition and host mortality. Parasite burdens become overdispersed during the warmer part of the year, as prevalence and mean abundance increase. However, the degree of parasite overdispersion decreases over winter; we cannot distinguish whether decreased aggregation is due to parasite losses from infected fish (including immune-mediated parasite mortality) or parasite-induced host mortality.     

Effects of body weight, water temperature and ration size on ammonia excretion by the areolated grouper (Epinephelus areolatus) and mangrove snapper (Lutjanus argentimaculatus)

The effects of body weight, water temperature and ration size on ammonia excretion rates of the areolated grouper Epinephelus areolatus and the mangrove snapper Lutjanus argentimaculatus were investigated. Under given experimental conditions, L. argentimaculatus had a higher weight-specific ammonia excretion rate than E. areolatus. Weight-specific ammonia excretion rates of fasted individuals of both species showed an inverse relationship with body weight (W, g wet wt.), but a positive relationship with water temperature (t, °C). The relationships for total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) were: E. areolatus: TAN (mg N kg⁻¹ d⁻¹)=21.4·exp^0.11t·W^−0.43 (r²=0.919, n=60); L. argentimaculatus: TAN (mg N kg⁻¹ d⁻¹)=121.5·exp^0.12t·W^−0.55 (r²=0.931, n=60). Following feeding, the weight-specific ammonia excretion rate of E. areolatus increased, peaked at 2 to 12 h (depending on temperature), and returned to pre-feeding levels within 24 h. A similar pattern was observed for L. argentimaculatus, with a peak of TAN excretion being found 6 to 12 h after feeding. Stepwise multiple regression analysis indicated that weight-specific TAN excretion rates of both species increased with increasing temperature and ration (R, percent body wt. d⁻¹): E. areolatus: TAN (mg N kg⁻¹ d⁻¹)=22.8·t−28.8·R−378.2 (r²=0.832, n=24); L. argentimaculatus: TAN (mg N kg⁻¹ d⁻¹)=22.9·t−25.4·R−216.4 (r²=0.611, n=24). The effect of body weight on weight-specific postprandial TAN excretion was not significant in either species (p>0.05). This study provides empirical data for estimating ammonia excretion of these two species under varying conditions. This has application for culture management.     

鱼类低氧胁迫及营养调控和应对研究进展

低氧胁迫会减弱中华绒螯蟹 (Eriocheir sinensis) 的免疫机能和抗氧化能力。为揭示纳米硒 (nano-Se) 对低氧胁迫下中华绒螯蟹的免疫保护作用及抗氧化调控机制,在基础饲料中添加不同水平 (0、0.1、0.2、0.4、0.8和1.6 mg·kg⁻¹) 的纳米硒饲喂中华绒螯蟹90 d。饲喂实验结束后,进行低氧胁迫实验并注射嗜水气单胞菌 (Aeromonas hydrophila)。结果表明：1) 低氧胁迫24 h和低氧胁迫下感染嗜水气单胞菌24 h的蟹死亡率分别可达62.45%和100%,低氧胁迫12 h使血淋巴中血蓝蛋白浓度、血细胞数量、组织中超氧化物歧化酶 (SOD)、过氧化氢酶 (CAT)、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶 (GSH-Px) 活性显著升高 (P<0.05),胁迫至第24小时有下降趋势;乳酸 (LD) 和丙二醛 (MDA) 浓度在低氧胁迫12~24 h持续上升。2) 饲料中添加适量 (0.1~0.4 mg·kg⁻¹) 纳米硒可显著降低低氧胁迫下蟹死亡率和低氧胁迫下嗜水气单胞菌的致死率 (P<0.05),显著提高低氧胁迫下血蓝蛋白浓度和血细胞数量以及抗氧化酶 (SOD、CAT、GSH-Px) 活性,降低LD和MDA浓度 (P<0.05);添加0.8~1.6 mg·kg⁻¹纳米硒加剧了低氧胁迫损伤。结果表明饲料中添加适量纳米硒可改善低氧胁迫下中华绒螯蟹的免疫功能和抗氧化能力,且添加水平以0.2 mg·kg⁻¹为宜。     

四指马鲅仔稚鱼发育及生长特征的初步研究

采用相关性分析和通径分析研究了室内循环水和池塘养殖四指马鲅 (Elentheronema tetradactylum) 的体质量和12个形态性状之间的关系。结果显示,两个养殖群体的形态性状与体质量均呈极显著正相关 (P<0.01),并且两个养殖群体各主要性状间的相关性达到极显著水平 (P<0.01)。与室内循环水养殖群体体质量相关程度较大的形态性状依次为叉长、体长、头长、尾柄高和全长;与池塘养殖群体体质量相关程度较大的形态性状依次为全长、尾柄高、叉长、体长和体高。通径分析表明,体长、体高、头长、体宽和眼径对室内循环水养殖四指马鲅体质量的直接作用达显著水平 (P<0.05),以上形态性状的直接和间接决定系数总和为1.418;全长、尾柄高、体高、躯干长、头长对池塘养殖群体的体质量直接作用均达显著水平 (P<0.05),以上形态性状的直接和间接决定系数总和为0.968。结果表明,池塘养殖环境鱼体的变异系数较大有利于良种选育,而室内循环水养殖规格较均匀利于生产。不同养殖模式下,四指马鲅形态性状与体质量的相关性分析可为其规模化养殖和选育技术优化提供理论依据。     

Loma salmonae (Protozoa: Microspora) infections in seawater reared coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch

Loma salmonae (Putz et al., 1965) infections were observed in five groups of coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch, reared in seawater net-pens in Washington State, U.S.A. in 1984–1986. Ultrastructural characteristics, size of spores, tissues and host infected, and geographical location identified the microsporidium as Loma salmonae. Preserved spores measured 4.4×2.3 (4–5.6×2–2.4) μm and exhibited 14–17 turns of the polar filament. Infections were evident in the gills of some fish before seawater entry, but few parasites were observed and they caused little tissue damage. Infections observed in fish after transfer to seawater were associated with significant pathological changes in the gills. A mixed inflammatory infiltrate was associated with ruptured microsporidian xenomas within the vessels and interstitium of the primary lamellae. Microsporidian spores were dispersed throughout the lesions and were often seen inside phagocytes. The parasite was also observed in the heart, spleen, kidney and pseudobranchs; however, the inflammatory lesions were common only in the heart.

Monthly examination of fish after transfer to seawater showed peak prevalences (33–65%) of gill infections during the summer. Although moribund fish were often infected with other pathogens, the high prevalence of L. salmonae infections and the severity of the lesions it caused, suggested that this parasite significantly contributed to the recurrent summer mortalities observed at this net-pen site.     

Effects of experimental infection by Caligus rogercresseyi (Copepoda: Caligidae) on the common jollytail, Galaxias maculatus (Osmeriforme: Galaxiidae) (Jenyns, 1842) in Chile

Galaxias maculatus, the common jollytail, is a native smelt fish with a lacustrine or diadromous life cycle. In Chile, the rearing cycle of this fish includes a freshwater and a marine phase. Several diseases and parasites reported for the freshwater phase could be avoided by rearing the fish in salty or brackish water. Nonetheless, this alternative could result in Caligus rogercresseyi infections. The objective of this study was to evaluate experimentally the capacity of C. rogercresseyi to infect the common jollytail and the effects this parasite may cause to the fish. Prevalence and intensity of experimental C. rogercresseyi infections on G. maculatus were estimated and the effects of this parasitosis on the fish were evaluated on fish survival, weight loss, swimming behavior, and skin damage. Two experiments were carried out with adult fish taken from the Maullín Estuary. Fish were acclimatized to a salinity of 32 ppt and divided into two groups of 20 fish each. The experimental group was infected with copepodid stages of C. rogercresseyi and the other was used as a control. The fish were kept in individual tanks until observing ovigerous female copepods. C. rogercresseyi recognizes G. maculatus as a host under experimental conditions and optimal salinity for the parasite. Results show that under experimental condition copepodid stage can successfully infect the fish, developing to the adult stage, mating, and producing eggs (females). C. rogercresseyi caused alterations in fish behavior, superficial body damage, weight loss, and mortality. Rearing the common jollytail in salty water should take into consideration measures to control these infections as they can damage fish and affect surrounding wild fish populations. There are no records of this parasite in natural common jollytail populations; however, our understanding of the ecological role played by the common jollytail in C. rogercresseyi transmissions among sympatric host species could be greatly improved through further research related to host preferences and epidemiological data for different sympatric host species.     

四种重金属离子对诸氏鲻虾虎鱼的单一和联合毒性

为研究诸氏鲻虾虎鱼(Mugilogobius chulae)“溃烂病”病原及其致病性,对患病鱼进行了病原分离、人工感染实验以及病原生理生化鉴定和gryB分析,研究了不同温度、盐度、pH条件对其致病性的影响。结果显示,病原菌为迟缓爱德华菌(Edwardsiella tarda),对诸氏鲻虾虎鱼和斑马鱼 (Danio rerio)的半致死剂量(LD₅₀)分别为57 CFU·尾^–1和2.0×10⁴ CFU·尾^–1,毒力基因(citC、mukF、esrB、katB、fimA、gadB)检测结果均为阳性,其基因序列与已知迟缓爱德华菌相应的毒力基因序列同源性高达99%。病理结果显示,患病鱼肾脏、肝脏、皮肤细胞均出现不同程度的变性、坏死和炎性细胞浸润等,其中肾和肝组织病变最为严重。25 ℃和30 ℃实验组5 d累计死亡率分别为(33±15)%、(60±10)%,显著高于20 ℃实验组和对照组 (P<0.05);盐度15和30实验组5 d累计死亡率分别为(60±10)%、(63±21)%,显著高于盐度3实验组 [(20±10)% ,P<0.05];而pH 6.0、pH 7.5、pH 9.0实验组之间5 d累计死亡率无显著差异 (P>0.05)。结果表明,迟缓爱德华菌是诸氏鲻虾虎鱼“溃烂病”病原,具有强致病性,养殖温度和盐度对其致病性具有显著影响。     

Infection and mortality by the yeast Metschnikowia bicuspidata var. bicuspidata in chinook salmon fed live adult brine shrimp (Artemia franciscana)

First-feeding chinook salmon were fed either live adult Artemia franciscana or commercial feed over a 15-week period. Unexplained mortality began occurring in the Artemia-fed fish after 35 days on the diets, with cumulative mortality reaching 34.5% in the Artemia-fed fish compared with 4.3% in feed-fed fish. Necropsy examinations revealed systemic fungal yeast infections and the causative agent was cultured from kidneys. Fungal cells were observed in the transport water of Artemia shipments and within the Artemia. The Artemia were purchased from a retail supplier, and originated from salt ponds in San Francisco Bay (SFB), California. Artemia infection rates ranged from 0.5% to 37.5% (mean 16.5±3.59%) in shipments received over a 5-week period. The fungus was characterized by morphological and physiological properties and was identified as Metschnikowia sp., a pathogenic yeast of aquatic invertebrates. The yeast grew at 9–27 °C, and 0–180 ppt NaCl, and could tolerate salinity of at least 270 ppt. Sequence analysis of the divergent D1/D2 domain of ascomycetous yeast 26S ribosomal DNA identified the organism as Metschnikowia bicuspidata var. bicuspidata. The organism was found in water from the salt ponds and probably entered from the bay. Mortality due to the fungal infection stopped after changes were made in the handling of incoming Artemia shipments.     

大黄鱼感染致病弧菌的检测及其病害的预测预警

为预防与控制大黄鱼溃疡病的发生,本研究利用特异多重PCR技术,对象山县养殖大黄鱼的3种致病弧菌感染情况进行了流行病学调查。每月在各定点网箱组随机采集大黄鱼肝、肾、脾、肌肉等组织进行感染情况的检测。结果显示,3种致病弧菌对大黄鱼的感染率存在一定的差异性。溶藻弧菌、哈维弧菌对大黄鱼的感染率整体高于副溶血弧菌;从感染组织分析,与肝脏、肾脏相比3种致病弧菌更易感染肌肉、脾脏;3种致病弧菌对不同鱼龄的大黄鱼感染率各不相同。研究还表明,3种致病弧菌在各个采样时间点均有感染,其中7—9月为弧菌感染高峰期,而台风后的感染率较台风前都有一定提高。另外,根据大黄鱼溃疡病发生与3种致病弧菌感染率关系的研究可知,在大黄鱼溃疡病暴发前几天,弧菌的感染率都会显示出较高数值。因此,可以通过3种致病弧菌对大黄鱼感染的分子流行病学调查与分析来预测预警病害的发生和流行。     

Life cycle of Caligus rogercresseyi, (Copepoda: Caligidae) parasite of Chilean reared salmonids

Caligus rogercresseyi, [Contrib. Zool. 69 (2000) 137] is the only caligid known to affect the salmon industry in Southern Chile. Economic losses due to reduced fish quality, cost of chemical treatment and outbreaks of other diseases such as the Piscirickettsiosis occur. The life cycle of C. rogercresseyi is described in rainbow trout reared in seawater tanks from observations made under natural conditions of light and temperature between January 1997 and April 1998. Fish were infected with laboratory-cultured larvae obtained from ovigerous females. Rainbow trout were periodically slaughtered for parasite collection and identification. C. rogercresseyi life cycle includes the following stages: two nauplius, one copepodid, four chalimus and the adult. No preadult stage was observed. Timing of the different stages of development was directly dependent on water temperature. The maturation of the eggs or the time for a complete life cycle took place at 45 days in July at 10.3 °C, 31–32 days in April at 12.4 and 12.8 °C, respectively, and at 26 days in November at 15.2 °C. In January, at 16.7 °C, only the appearance of first eggs were observed at 18 days. A simple degree–day (dd) model is proposed for each developmental stage between 4 and 17 °C, where the development rate is a linear function of the average temperature of water. Using this degree–day model, the proportion of fourth stage chalimus was maximum at 172 dd of effective temperature, adult males at 193 degree–days, adult females at 208 dd. The minimum temperature threshold is at 4.2 °C where there is no development of the parasite. The appearance of first eggs occurred at 231 dd and the first pigmented eggs at 277 dd. The temperature-independent degree–days value allowed to predict the timing of C. rogercresseyi life cycle at any temperature within the evaluated range.     

Epizootiology of Parvicapsulaminibicornis in Fraser River sockeye salmon, Oncorhynchusnerka (Walbaum)

Late-spawning Fraser River sockeye salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka , stocks have suffered significant prespawn mortality associated with an unusually early freshwater migration pattern and the myxosporean parasite Parvicapsula minibicornis . Surveys of migrating adult salmon from several spawning populations were conducted in 1999 and 2000 to determine the extent of infection with P. minibicornis , when and where the parasite first becomes detectable during migration, and whether early migrating stocks might be used as sentinels to assess risk of infection in late-spawning stocks. Posterior kidney, preserved in 95% ethanol, was examined for P. minibicornis in stained histological sections and using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test. The prevalence of this parasite in all Fraser River sockeye salmon stocks examined was high (range 47–100% infected). In contrast, P. minibicornis was not detected in the fish tested from the two sockeye salmon stocks outside the Fraser River drainage in either 1999 or 2000. The parasite was also not detected histologically or by PCR in the kidney tissue of the fish from the Fraser River that were sampled in salt water or early during their freshwater migration up the river. These findings and the progression in the prevalence and intensity of infection as the fish from three stocks (early Stuart, Weaver Creek and Cultus Lake) were monitored over time, suggest salmon acquired the parasite either in the lower Strait of Georgia or in the lower Fraser River before the confluence of the Harrison River. In both 1999 and 2000 the parasite was present in all Fraser River sockeye salmon stocks sampled, which suggests that early Stuart salmon may be valuable as a sentinel stock for the presence of the parasite in later-spawning stocks.     

Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, utilizes wax ester-rich oil from Calanus finmarchicus effectively

Against a background of decreasing availability of fish oils for use in aquaculture, the present study was undertaken to examine whether a wax ester-rich oil derived from the calanoid copepod Calanus finmarchicus, could be used effectively by Atlantic salmon when supplied in their diet. Individually tagged Atlantic salmon of initial weight around 500 g were divided into replicate tanks of two dietary groups and fed either a fish oil supplemented diet, or an experimental diet coated with Calanus oil. Wax esters accounted for 37.5% of the lipids in the Calanus oil diet but were absent from the fish oil diet in which triacylglycerols (TAG) were the major lipid class. Over the feeding period (140 days) the salmon fed fish oil displayed a greater increase in length, but there was no significant difference between the two groups in weight gained. The specific growth rates (0.75) and the feed conversion ratio of fish fed the two diets were similar throughout the study. No differences were observed in the apparent digestibility coefficients (ADC) of fish fed Calanus oil or fish oil. The ADC of fatty acids decreased with chain length and increased with unsaturation. Long-chain alcohol utilization showed a similar tendency although there was a notable difference in that saturated long-chain alcohols were utilized better than the comparable fatty acid homologue. In fecal lipid of fish fed Calanus oil, the content of 16:0 alcohol decreased in both the free long-chain alcohol and wax ester fractions, while the corresponding fatty acid increased in the feces of both dietary groups of fish. In contrast, the proportion of the 22:1n−11 alcohol increased in both fecal wax esters and free long-chain alcohol fractions whereas 22:1n−11 fatty acid displayed no accumulation. The observed patterns of fatty acid and long-chain alcohol compositions in fecal lipid compared to those of the initial dietary lipid are consistent with the digestive lipases of salmon preferentially hydrolyzing esters containing polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) moieties. The wax esters of Calanus oil contained substantial amounts of the n−3 PUFA, 20:5n−3 and 22:6n−3, that were effectively deposited in muscle and liver tissues. No major differences were seen in either lipid content/lipid classes or in gross fatty acid composition of these tissues between the two dietary groups. It is concluded that that Atlantic salmon in seawater can effectively utilize diets in which a major lipid component is derived from zooplankton rich in wax ester without any detrimental change in growth or body lipid composition. This finding gives support to the use of lipid from zooplankton from high latitudes as an alternative or as a supplement to fish oil and a provider of long-chain n−3 PUFA in diets for use in salmon aquaculture.     

Host susceptibility to Lernaea cyprinacea L. and its treatment in a large aquarium system

Abstract. Host susceptibility to Lernaea cyprinacea was studied during an outbreak of the infection in an aquarium containing 58 species or stocks of fish belonging to 20 families and eight orders. L. cyprinacea was accidentally introduced on two occasions and spread through the recycling of the aquarium exposing all fish to infection. During the first outbreak only 39.7% of the fish species became infected. Approximately 17% carried a mean of less than 10 parasites and 22% carried a mean of more than 10 parasites. During the second outbreak, 6 months after the first, there was a decrease in both the prevalence and intensity of infection; only five species were infected and mean levels of infection were less than 10 per fish except for newly introduced fish. This suggests the possible development of immunity in the previously infected hosts. On both occasions the infection was successfully eradicated by using Unden (2-isopropoxy-phenyl-N-methylcarbamate) at 0.16 ppm, weekly for 4 weeks and Dipterex (0,0-dimethyl, 2,2,2-trichloro-l-hydroxyethylphosphate) at 0.16 ppm for the fifth dose, when the larval stages of the parasite revealed resistance to Unden.     

Safety and efficacy of emamectin benzoate administered in-feed to Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., smolts in freshwater, as a preventative treatment against infestations of sea lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer)

The safety and efficacy of emamectin benzoate, administered in-feed to Atlantic salmon smolts, Salmo salar L., held in freshwater, was evaluated as a preventative treatment against sea lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis, following transfer of fish to seawater.

In the safety study, salmon smolts held in freshwater were fed with diets containing emamectin benzoate at nominal doses of 0 (control), 50 (recommended dose) and 250 (5× recommended dose) μg kg⁻¹ fish day⁻¹ for 7 days (days 0–6). Actual dose rates, based on measured concentrations of emamectin benzoate in feed, differences in fish weight, and feed consumed, were 0, 54, and 272 μg kg⁻¹ day⁻¹, respectively. On day 9, fish were transferred to seawater and observed for 14 days. No differences in feeding response, coordination, behaviour, gross and histological appearance were observed between control fish and those that received 54 μg kg⁻¹ day⁻¹. Among smolts that received 272 μg kg⁻¹ day⁻¹, approximately 50% exhibited darker coloration, and one fish (1%) exhibited uncoordinated swimming behaviour. No pathognomonic signs of emamectin benzoate toxicity were identified.

In the efficacy study, smolts held in freshwater were fed an unmedicated ration (control group) or emamectin benzoate at 50 μg kg⁻¹ day⁻¹ (treated group) for 7 days (days 0–6). On day 9, fish were re-distributed to eight seawater tanks, each holding 30 control and 30 treated fish. On days 28, 56, 77 and 109, respectively, control and treated fish in two tanks were challenged with L. salmonis copepodites. When lice in each group reached chalimus stage IV, fish were sampled and the numbers of lice were recorded. Fish challenged at day 109 were sampled for the second time when lice were at the adult stage. Efficacy was calculated as the reduction in the mean number of lice on treated fish relative to the mean on control fish. Treatment with emamectin benzoate resulted in an efficacy of 85.0–99.8% in fish challenged at days 28–77, from the start of treatment, and lice counts were significantly lower (P<0.001) on treated fish than on controls. When fish challenged at day 109 were sampled at day 128, efficacy was 44.3%, but survival of chalimus to adult lice on treated fish was lower, and at day 159, efficacy had increased to 73%. These results demonstrate that treatment of salmon smolts with emamectin benzoate in freshwater was well tolerated and highly effective in preventing sea lice infestation following transfer of fish to seawater.