The development and acceptability of lupine (Lupinus mutabilis) products

To ensure the cultivation of the lupine and improve the nutritional state of the Andean population, products have been developed which are enriched with lupine. The high content of bitter alkaloids in the seed of theLupinus mutabilis may be considerably reduced by washing with water (traditional method, ‘Cuzco method’). Drying the grains makes it possible to store them. The lupine with a moisture content of 4 to 8%, can be milled; the flour obtained is slightly yellowish and suitable for panification, where 10 to 40% of the wheat flour may be substituted by lupin. The Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER) of bread was found to be 28% (casein 100%) and was much higher after the enrichment with 10% lupine flour (76%). Lupine based dishes have been well accepted according to a test of acceptability performed with children from 8 to 15 years of age over a three year period.     

Composition and nutritional quality of pea (Pisum sativum L.), faba bean (Vicia faba L. spp. minor) and lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) meals,protein concentrates and isolates

Pea (Pisum sativum L.), faba bean (Vicia faba L. spp. minor), and lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) meals, protein concentrates and isolates were analyzed for proximate composition, oligosaccharides, and amino acid composition. Protein quality was evaluated using a mouse bio-assay. The concentrates contained 59.2 to 70.6% and the isolates 86.7 to 90.8% protein (N × 6.25) on moisture-free basis. Glucose, sucrose, raffinose, stachyose and verbascose were present in the highest concentrations in the protein concentrates (7.1 to 11.1%), the pea protein concentrate contained 8.7% sugars and faba bean and lentil protein concentrates 7.1% and 6.6% respectively. The protein isolates were almost free (containing less than 0.79%) of the sugars. Amino acid composition of the meals, concentrates and isolates showed, as expected, sulfur-amino acid deficiency (about two thirds of the rat requirement), which was probably largely responsible for the low protein efficiency ratios (0.75 to 1.18), and net protein ratios (0.25 to 0.73) of the three products, compared to values of 2.56 and 2.18 respectively obtained for casein. The protein digestibilities of the meals, concentrates and isolates (81 to 90%) were similar to that of casein (87%). The poor growth-promoting abilities of the meals, concentrates and isolates were possibly also due to growth-depressing factors such as tannins, trypsin inhibitors and hemagglutinins present, particularly in faba bean and lentil.     

Composition and functional properties of protein isolates obtained from commercial legumes grown in northern Spain

Pea (Pisum sativum), faba bean (Vicia faba) and soybean (Glycine max) seeds were characterized, and protein isolates were prepared following an isoelectric point precipitation procedure. Soybean seeds showed the highest protein content (36.7%) and carbohydrate was the major constituent in the pea (59.4%) and the faba bean seeds (52.1%). Protein contents were higher than 80% in all the protein isolates. The amino acid contents in the protein isolates were, in general, higher than those in their own starting seeds. The antinutritional factor contents were reduced after the protein isolate preparation. The highest reductions achieved for tannins were 95% in the faba bean protein isolate, and for phytates (45%) and trypsin inhibitor activity (46%) in the pea protein isolate. Haemagglutinating activity was not detected in any of the protein isolates. Minimum solubility values were observed at a pH range between 4.0 and 6.0, and maximal solubilities were obtained at basic pH values. The faba bean protein isolate showed the highest water and oil absorption capacities, and the best gelling properties. The soybean protein isolate had the best foam expansion capacity. Thus, the protein isolates had an improvement in some of the characteristics compared to their original seeds with lower contents in tannins, phytates and haemagglutinating activity, but had weak functional properties.     

Selected nutritional,physical and sensory characteristics of pan and flat breads prepared from composite flours containing fababean

Composite flour blends containing wheat (W), fababean (F), cottonseed and sesame flours were formulated to provide the FAO/WHO/UNU protein requirements for the 2–5 year old child, and evaluated in pan and flat bread applications. Water absorption of composite flour doughs was up to 35% greater than the control but gluten strength and slurry viscosities were markedly reduced. Loaf volume and specific volume of pan breads prepared from composite flours were 25–60% less than that of the control bread but flat breads tolerated the protein supplements extremely well. The W/F flat bread, containing 27% of fababean flour, received acceptable taste, texture and colour scores and was only slightly inferior to the control in puffing and layer separation. Additions of cottonseed or sesame flours to the W/F blend failed to improve sensory properties of the flat breads.     

Protein isolates and concentrates of Lupinus free from toxic substances

The presence of alkaloids in different species and varieties of Lupin limit their use in the diet [4, 9]. Experiments have been carried out to obtain protein concentrates [3, 4] and isolates [10, 11, 12] of two species of Lupins.L. albus andL. mutabilis and these have been compared with those carried out with soya. The results obtained indicated the importance of this flour, due to its high protein content in relation to the weight of the initial product used. In the protein isolates, with comparable yields of 29%, the protein levels were 90% for the soya and 96% for theL. mutabilis. For the concentrates (65% yield in soya to 72% inL. albus) protein percentages of 52% for the soya, 47% forL. albus and 67% forL. mutabilis, were obtained.     

Preparation and properties of flours and protein concentrates from raw, fermented and germinated fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis Hook) seeds

In vitro protein digestibility, chemical composition and selected functional properties of flours and protein concentrates prepared from raw, fermented and germinated fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis Hook) seeds were studied. Protein concentrates prepared by an alkaline extraction process had increased crude protein contents (61.5–70.8%) compared to flour samples (46.4–52.7%). The yields of protein concentrates ranged from 24.5% to 29.4% while values for protein recoveries varied between 64.8% and 65.2%. Protein concentrates also had increased foam volume and decreased foam stability (100% decrease over a 2 h period), compared to flour samples. Fermentation and germination were observed to significantly (p<0.05) lower polyphenol and phytic acid contents, but increased protein digestibility of fluted pumpkin seed flours and concentrates. Both raw flour and concentrate were significantly (p<0.05) higher in water absorption capacity than germinated or fermented flours and concentrates. Protein concentrates had comparatively better fat absorption properties than the flour samples. Hence protein concentrates may prove to have useful applications in ground meat formulations.     

Productivity and residual effects of legumes in rice-based cropping systems in a warm-temperate environment: I. Legume biomass production and N fixation

Field experiments were conducted to investigate the performance of temperate legume species in rice-based cropping systems in a warm-temperate environment in Nepal. Over the period 1994–1996, various legume species were grown during the winter season (October–May) in the Kathmandu valley (27° N, 1350 m asl) with the aim of evaluating their biomass production and N fixation. A wide range of legume species including food, feed and green manure crops proved to be very well adapted to the winter growing conditions in this environment. The cultivation of temperate legume crops therefore, constitutes an alternative to traditional cropping practices such as growing wheat or leaving the land fallow. The temperate species appeared to capitalise on generally favourable growing conditions such as long growing season, low pest and disease pressure, high radiant energy receipt and cool night temperatures. However, performance varied greatly between species and years. Total dry matter yields ranged from 2 to 20 t ha⁻¹ obtained with lentil (Lens culinaris Medic) and bitter lupin (Lupinus mutabilis), respectively. Highest seed yields were produced by fababean (Vicia faba) (5 t ha⁻¹) and field pea (Pisum sativum var. arvense) (3 t ha⁻¹) in the first season. Nitrogen yields and quantities of N fixed ranged from 18 to 481 kg ha⁻¹ and from 0 to 463 kg ha⁻¹, respectively. Large amounts of N were fixed by species such as fababean, Persian clover (Trifolium resupinatum) and bitter lupin. Early sowing in autumn was shown to be beneficial for some crops such as fababean, vetch (Vicia benghalensis) and Persian clover. In these cases, it is, therefore, important to reduce the turn-around interval after rice. Further research is required to fully determine the potential of temperate legume species in these environments with particular emphasis given to the identification of the most adapted cultivars and to reduce the need for irrigation of these winter crops.     

In vitro starch digestibility,degree of gelatinization and functional properties of twin screw prepared cereal-legume pasta

The investigation explores the possibility of utilizing legume flour (pigeon pea:10–30%) and brown rice flour (35–45%) for production of pasta using twin screw extruder. RSM was used to analyse the effect of feed moisture (28–36%), barrel temperature (70–110 °C) and legume:brown rice ratio on quality responses (in vitro starch and protein digestibility, degree of starch gelatinization, cooking quality, pasting properties, color and textural properties) of pasta. Extrusion processing significantly enhanced in vitro starch and protein digestibility of prepared pasta. The in vitro starch and protein digestibility of pasta ranged between 15.00 and 26.77 g/100 g and 50.34–84.82 g/100 g respectively. Addition of brown rice flour and pigeon pea flour exhibited dominating positive effect on cooking quality of the pasta. Degree of gelatinization of prepared pasta was found in range of 52.13–90.10 per cent. Color characteristics viz. luminosity, redness and yellowness of pasta enhanced with feed moisture. Pasting properties revealed lower peak and final viscosity at higher processing conditions. Firmness of cooked pasta elevated with an increase in the barrel temperature. Acceptability score of health based pasta on the basis of sensory attributes was 8 as inferred from 9 point hedonic scale.     

The protein quality of lupins (Lupinus mutabilis) alone and in combination with other protein sources

The chemical compositions, of raw and treated lupine flour were determined and compared with other plant protein sources. The protein content in the dry matter was 47.7% in untreated seeds ofLupinus mutabilis and about 56% in debittered seeds. The oil-cake contained 65.3% protein. The amino acid analysis showed that lupine protein is characterized by a low level of S-amino acids, the content of which amounts to only 50% of that of the FAO standard reference pattern. The protein quality was measured using the biological tests PER (Protein Efficiency Ratio), NPU (net protein utilization), and BV (biological value) in rats on diets with and without DL-methionine supplementation. PER determinations gave low values for the non-supplemented lupine proteins (1.34, semi-sweet variety; 1.53, water-extracted seeds; 1.19, oil-cake; 3.09, casein), but the PER's were improved by the addition of 0.2% DL-methionine to the diets (3.05, 2.69, 2.81, respectively). Raw as well as processed lupine protein showed an excellent apparent digestibility (80.0–85.8%; casein, 87.1%). The observed NPU and BV values confirmed the importance of methionine supplementation. The true digestibility of 92% was equivalent to that of casein. The complementation effects of mixing lupine protein with proteins from wheat, oat, barley, rice, maize, potato, quinua or fish were investigated by determination of the PER values of the respective mixtures. Feeding lupine protein with cereal proteins resulted in PER values that exceeded by far those of the proteins fed separately (true complementation). This result was not observed for the mixture of potato and lupine. High quality proteins like quinua and fish protein also showed no complementation effect with lupine protein but did improve the quality of the lupine protein to a great extent. The best results could be obtained with combinations of three different plant proteins, in which lupine protein always contributed one third of total protein. These mixtures resulted in PER values equal to those for casein or other animal proteins and may be applied as an economical way to prevent and combat malnutrition.     

Texturized Pinto Bean Protein Fortification in Straight Dough Bread Formulation

Pinto beans were milled and then air-classified to obtain a raw high protein fraction (RHPF) followed by extrusion to texturize the protein fraction. The texturized high protein fraction (THPF) was then milled to obtain flour, and combined with wheat flour at 5, 10, and 15 % levels to make bread. The air-classification process produced flour with high concentration of lipids and phytic acid in the protein-rich fraction. However, extrusion significantly reduced hexane extractable lipid and phytic acid. However, the reduction observed may simply indicate a reduction in recovery due to bind with other components. Total protein and lysine contents in composite flours increased significantly as THPF levels increased in composite flour. Bread made with 5 % THPF had 48 % more lysine than the 100 % wheat flour (control). The THPF helped to maintain dough strength by reducing mixing tolerance index (MTI), maintaining dough stability and increasing departure time on Farinograph. Bread loaf volume was significantly reduced above 5 % THPF addition. THPF increased water absorption causing an increase in bread weights by up to 6 %. Overall, loaf quality deteriorated at 10 and 15 % THPF levels while bread with 5 % THPF was not significantly different from the control. These results support the addition of 5 % THPF as a means to enhance lysine content of white pan bread.     

Water retention and flow behaviours of protein isolates from peas

Protein isolates from pea flour were prepared by extraction of protein at pH 7.0 or 9.0 which was followed by precipitation as isoelectric isolates or as proteinates. After spray-drying, chemical composition, water retention capacities, thickening properties, and flow behaviours were determined and compared to those of a soybean protein isolate (Supro 620).     

Feature of air classification product in wheat milling: Physicochemical,rheological properties of filter flour

Wheat filter flours are by-products obtained from air-classification of wheat flour. Physicochemical and rheological properties of wheat filter flours were investigated in the present study. Average values of crude protein, gluten, lipid and damaged starch content of filter flours were higher than those of standard flours for the same batch. The positive correlation of particles with size <20 μm and damaged starch was found. Moreover, the filter flours had higher water absorption, stability time except head milling filter flour samples. Short peak time and low peak viscosity were also observed. Different composition of wheat filter flours may be an important factor influencing its properties. This study is very useful for exploring the utilization of wheat filter flours in the food industry.     

S-methyl-L-cysteine content of various legume meals

Total nitrogen, total sulphur and S-methyl-L-cysteine content of seed meals ofPhaseolus vulgaris, Vigna aureus, Vigna unguiculata, Phaseolus lunatus, Pisum sativum, Cajanus cajan, Vicia faba major,Vicia faba minor,Glycine max, Lupinus albus andSphenostylis stenocarpa, have been determined. The nutritional significance of the presence of S-methyl-L-cysteine is discussed, together with the role that this amino acid may play in interfering with the determination of methionine by cleavage with cyanogen bromide and subsequent gas-chromatographic identification of methyl thiocyanate.     

Quality and antioxidant properties of instant noodles enhanced with common buckwheat flour

The objective of this study was to investigate the feasibility of incorporating common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) into instant noodle formulations. Australian Soft (AS) and Baker's flours were used to evaluate the effects of varying buckwheat contents (0–40%) on noodle quality. The results of texture analysis indicate that noodles made using AS flour produced softer texture whereas there was minimal effect for Baker's flour when buckwheat was incorporated. The colour, measured by L* values, decreased with increased addition of buckwheat for both flours. Fat uptake for noodle samples made from AS flour was only marginally affected, but increased for Baker's flour, when higher levels of buckwheat flour were added. The antioxidant rutin was detected in noodles made from both wheat flours, generally increasing with % buckwheat flour added. These findings indicate that the incorporation of 20% buckwheat into the formulation can be used to enhance the quality of instant noodles.     

The effects of ‘Vicia faba L.’ polyphenols on absorption,growth and metabolism in the rat

Two varieties of ‘Vicia faba L.’equina andminor, were studied. Theequina variety had a higher polyphenolic content than theminor variety. Both varieties significantly inhibited rat growth rate and ‘in vivo’ intestinal glucose transport, theequina variety being a more powerful inhibitor than theminor variety. However the raw legume fed animals showed a normal urinary excretion rate of 3-Methylhistidine.     

Winter cover crops influence Amaranthus palmeri establishment

Winter cover crops were evaluated for their effect on Amaranthus palmeri establishment and growth in cotton production. Cover crops examined included rye and four winter legumes: narrow-leaf lupine, crimson clover, Austrian winter pea, and cahaba vetch. Each legume was evaluated alone and in a mixture with rye. Cover crop biomass in monoculture was greatest for rye and lupine (>6750 kg ha⁻¹), while clover, pea, and vetch were less and ranged from 2810 to 4610 kg ha⁻¹. Cover crop biomass was more than doubled when rye was mixed with clover or vetch relative to the legume monoculture. In early-June, A. palmeri densities were 46 seedlings m⁻² in the non-disturbed areas between cotton rows in the fallow, while populations were <4 seedlings m⁻² with rolled vetch or pea and 18 and 29 seedlings m⁻² in rolled clover and lupine. Rye and legume mixtures reduced A. palmeri densities to <3 seedlings m⁻², while rye monocultures had 8 seedlings m⁻². There were no differences in A. palmeri densities (≥144 plants m⁻²) in the cotton row among cover crop treatments. By late-June, rye and winter pea controlled A. palmeri in the row middle >80% relative to the non-cover crop fallow treatment, while control from clover, vetch and lupine ranged from 64 to 70%. The relationship between A. palmeri control in between cotton rows and cover crop biomass was described by a log-logistic regression model with 4530 kg ha⁻¹ providing median weed control (Bio₅₀); predicted A. palmeri control was 25, 50, and 75% from 2950, 4900, and 8600 kg ha⁻¹ cover crop biomass, respectively. However, A. palmeri plants in the cotton rows prevented yield production in the absence of herbicides. Where A. palmeri was controlled with herbicides, the highest yields occurred following rye, with lower yields following lupin/rye mixture and treatments including pea. Management of herbicide resistant weed species requires diverse management tactics; this may include high-biomass cover crops to reduce weed establishment between crop rows. However, greater research effort is needed to devise weed management options for the crop row that do not rely exclusively on the diminishing array of herbicide tools.     

Compositional,functional and storage properties of flours from raw and heat processed African breadfruit (Treculia africana Decne) seeds

African breadfruit (Treculia africana Decne) seeds were either boiled or roasted and then milled into flour. Chemical composition, functional properties and storage characteristics of raw and treated flours and the effect of partial proteolysis on selected functional properties of the raw flour were determined. Raw flour contained 20.1% crude protein, 2.5% total ash and 13.7% fat. Heat processing significantly (p<0.05) improved in vitro protein digestibility, and water and fat absorption capacities but decreased bulk density, nitrogen solubility, emulsion and foaming properties, trypsin inhibitor, and phytic acid and polyphenol contents of the samples. Boiling proved more effective than roasting for improving protein digestibility, emulsion capacity and foam stability and reducing antinutritional factor levels. Partial proteolysis increased nitrogen solubility, bulk density and water and fat absorption capacities but decreased foam capacity at hydrolysis levels greater than 35%. Fatty acid and peroxide values of the samples increased during storage. Compared to raw samples, heat processed samples had significantly (p<0.05) lower and more acceptable peroxide values and free fatty acid contents and higher and more stable water (3.0 g/g sample) and fat (2.4 g/g sample) absorption capacities.     

Improving the Nutritional Value of Cool Season Food Legumes

Abstract

Cool season food legumes such as pea, lentil, chickpea, faba bean, grasspea and lupin have been consumed in animal and human diets since domestication and have been cultivated for over 9000 years. Due to their nutritional value they continue to make up a substantial portion of diets in developing countries worldwide. Seeds are composed of protein, starch, fiber, lipids, vitamins and minerals as well as several antinutritional compounds. Protein and starch combined account for 50-75% of seed mass. Similar amounts of protein and starch are present in each species and range from 15-40% and 35-53%, respectively. Fiber accounts for 1-22% of the seed mass. Chickpea is quite variable for fiber content, but faba bean, grasspea and lupin all contain approximately 15% fiber while pea and lentil have substantially lower levels, 4-8%. Protein composition is deficient in the sulfur amino acids, methionine and cysteine, but contains adequate levels of lysine making the legumes an excellent dietary complement to cereals. As a result these crops have been produced and consumed together for centuries. Despite the high nutritional value of these crops, they contain several antinutritional factors (ANF) such as phytic acid, protease inhibitors, heamagglutinins, tannins, alkaloids, raffinose oligosaccharides and antigenicity factors at relatively low levels. These compounds serve important roles in pest resistance or plant survival, but reduce digestibility and palatability when consumed. Genetic analysis of the antinutritional factors has shown that many of the ANFs are controlled by single genes and has allowed geneticists to reduce accumulation of the ANFs, thereby improving nutritional value. Legumes will continue to serve as the primary source of protein in areas of the world where meat is not readily available. Continued research toward a better understanding of the genetic control of legume quality will give geneticists the opportunity to improve the dietary value of these crops.     

Nutritional Evaluation and Shelf Life Studies of Papads Prepared from Wheat–Legume Composite Flours

The present study was carried out to develop papads from wheat and legume blends and to analyze them for organoleptic acceptability, nutritional quality, and keeping quality. Papad is a dehydrated product prepared from dhals or rice. A firm but pliable dough is made from the flours of dhals or rice with addition of suitable seasoning. It is shaped into balls, rolled out thin, dried and toasted over open fire so as to give a light, crisp product. Mung flour papads were kept as control and wheat flour, chickpea flour, and pea flour were used to supplement mung flour papads. Three different proportions (10, 20, 30%) of each flour were used to supplement Mung flour. Papads with wheat flour (10%), chickpea flour (20%), and pea flour (10%) level of supplementation were found to be most acceptable and these papads were subjected to nutritional evaluation. Protein content significantly increased on supplementation with legume flours at all levels. Fat content was significantly higher in chickpea flour supplemented papads. Ash content varied significantly from 10.17 to 10.78% in papads. Total carbohydrates decreased significantly on supplementation with chickpea flour. Copper content increased significantly on supplementation. A significant decrease in phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor of supplemented papads was found. In vitro protein digestibility significantly increased on supplementation but a significant decrease in in vitro starch digestibility was found in supplemented papads. Storage studies showed that chickpea flour and pea flour supplemented papads can be stored safely for 60 days and wheat flour supplemented papads for 30 days both at room and refrigeration temperatures.     

Effect ofCallosobruchus chinensis (Bruchid) infestation on antinutritional factors in stored legumes

Effect of bruchid infestation on selected antinutritional factors, saponin, phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor activities, of three (mung bean, chickpea and pigeon pea) legumes stored for six months was studied. The three antinutritional factors, saponin, phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), increased with increased storage period. Saponin, phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor activity values were significantly lower in control samples compared to stored infested samples. The difference between the contents of antinutritional factors were significant (p<0.05) during different storage periods.