Resource partitioning between lake-dwelling Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) parr, brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) and Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus (L.))

Abstract – Resource partitioning between Atlantic salmon parr, brown trout and Arctic charr was studied throughout the ice-free season in a north Norwegian lake. Juvenile salmon and trout (≤160 mm) utilized the littoral zone and juvenile charr the profundal, while adult trout and charr (>160 mm) were found in both. Juvenile salmon and trout had a similar diet, although trichopteran larvae were more important for the trout and chironomid pupae and three-spined sticklebacks for the salmon parr. Small salmon and trout parr (≤120 mm) had a higher diet overlap than larger parr (121–160 mm). The feeding habits of adult trout were similar to that of juvenile trout, but the former took larger prey items. At the population level, both salmon and trout were generalistic feeders with a broad diet, but at the individual level, both species had specialized on a single or a few prey categories. Juvenile charr were segregated from salmon and trout in both habitat and food utilization; they had a narrow diet consisting of chironomids and zooplankton, possibly reflecting their confinement to the profundal habitat which have a low diversity of potential prey. Larger charr also took zoobenthos and sticklebacks in the littoral zone. ^Note     

Sensitivity of brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) fry to amino acids at the start of exogenous feeding

Unfed Atlantic salmon and brown trout fry of “start feed” age, were tested individually in an olfactometer with 5 μM concentrations of 15 different 1-amono acids. Certain amino acids elicited particularly high frequencies of behaviour patterns which could be associated with feeding behaviour in salmonid fry. Increased snapping (prey capture) was shown by the fry of both species in response to 1-proline and increased swimming and movement (food search) were shown in response to 1-alanine. Darting (prey pursuit) was rarely seen, but the Atlantic salmon fry showed comparatively high dart scores in response to 1-methionine. 1-Alanine, 1-proline, glycine, 1-methionine, 1-valine, 1-leucine, 1-glutamic acid and 1-lysine proved more potent than a control condition for the Atlantic salmon fry, but only 1-proline, 1-alanine, glycine, 1-arginine and 1-histidine proved to be potent stimuli for the brown trout fry. 1-Proline and 1-alanine were the most potent amino acids for both species. All other amino acids induced levels of activity similar to controls.     

Habitat utilization of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.), brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) and Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus (L.)) in two lakes in northern Norway

Abstract— Habitat utilization of juvenile Atlantic salmon, brown trout and Arctic charr was investigated in two lakes in northern Norway during the icefree season. Both the vertical distribution and the distribution among different habitat types were studied by gillnetting with small mesh sized gillnets (8-15 mm) in different habitats. Salmon and trout were predominantly caught in the littoral and sublittoral zones (0-6 m depth). Access to shelter seemed to be the most important factor determining the horizontal distribution of small salmon and trout. Most of these fish were caught in stony or vegetated habitats, while few salmon and trout were caught on sandy locations or in the pelagic zone. In one of the lakes, there were significantly higher catch rates of salmon than of trout in the stony littoral (0-3 m), while in the other lake there were no significant differences in spatial distribution between these two species. Charr were primarily found in the profundal, sublittoral or pelagic zones of the lakes.     

Lake-use by juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) and other salmonids in northern Norway

Abstract– The utilization of lakes, and inlet and outlet streams by juvenile Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar L.), brown trout ( Salmo trutta L.) and Arctic charr ( Salvelinus alpinus (L.), were investigated in 16 watercourses northern Norway, all known to inhabit salmon stocks. In lakes, fish were caught by small mesh size gill nets, while in rivers fish were caught electrofishing. In the shallow littoral (0-3 m depth) there were juvenile salmon in 15 of 19 investigated lakes, juvenile trout in 17 and juvenile charr in seven. Trout dominated significantly in numbers in the shallow littoral of seven lakes, while salmon and charr dominated in three lakes each. When trout and salmon were frequent in the shallow littoral, charr was usually not present in this habitat, but were found in the profundal zone in most of the lakes. Atlantic salmon parr utilized both shallow and deep lakes, and used both stones and macrophytic vegetation as shelter. The utilization of lakes by salmon parr seemed to be closely related to utilization of small inlet streams for spawning. In most inlet and outlet streams salmon dominated over trout in numbers, while charr were absent. This is the first documentation of lake-use by naturally occurring salmon parr in Scandinavia.     

Saltwater performance of triploid Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. brown trout Salmo trutta L. hybrids

Survival and growth in a saltwater net-pen of sexually immature triploid Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. brown trout Salmo trutta L. hybrids was comparable to that of immature diploid Atlantic salmon. Following 17 months of freshwater rearing, the experimental fish were individually tagged and transferred to a saltwater net-pen where they were raised communally for 376 days. Initial and final average weights were 158 and 760 g per fish for the diploid Atlantic salmon and 209 and 1010 g per fish for the triploid hybrids; weights for the hybrids were significantly larger in both cases (α= 0.05). Survival from transfer to harvest was 43% for the Atlantic salmon and 48% for the hybrids. Average specific growth rate of fish which survived to harvest was 0.42% day^-1 for Atlantic salmon and 0.41% day^-1 for hybrids; these values were not significantly different. No significant differences were observed in average condition factor and dress-out percentage between crosses. Average gonadal weights and gonadosomatic indices were not significantly different for male diploid Atlantic salmon, female triploid hybrids and male triploid hybrids, but were significantly greater for female Atlantic salmon.     

Incidence of hybridization between Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., and brown trout, Salmo trutta L., in Ireland

The substantial growth of the farmed salmon industry in Europe since the 1970s has highlighted concerns regarding the genetic impact of escaped farmed salmon on wild salmonid stocks. High incidences of salmon × trout hybrids have been recorded in rivers situated near intensive salmon farming in Norway and Scotland, which may be indicative of a breakdown in reproductive isolation between salmon, Salmo salar L., and brown trout, Salmo trutta L. In the present study, salmonid fry and 0+ parr were collected from rivers in western Ireland. Allozyme and minisatellite DNA analysis were carried out on fry to determine the frequency of F1 hybrids from 10 rivers located within 38 km of salmon farms and three rivers at least 80 km from salmon farms. A total of 49 hybrids were recorded from 4135 salmonid fry (frequency = 1.2%). Mitochondrial DNA analysis showed that all hybrids arose from Atlantic salmon female × brown trout male crosses. Hybrid parr were recorded from one of the low-risk rivers (1.0%), but were present in seven out of the 10 catchments located within 38 km of salmon farms, with frequencies ranging from 0.7% to 3.1%. The results of the present survey, which represents the first extensive record of the levels of salmon-trout hybridization in Ireland, are discussed in relation to the continued growth of salmon farming in this country.     

Selective segregation in intraspecific competition between juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and brown trout (Salmo trutta)

Interactive segregation has been suggested as the ruling competition mechanism determining niche and niche segregation between juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and brown trout (Salmo trutta). Results from allopatry–sympatry observations of habitat use in both nature and in experiments were contrary to predictions derived from the interactive segregation hypothesis. Habitat use parameters under natural conditions such as distance to shore for Atlantic salmon parr were nearly identical in allopatric (mean ± SD; 3.2 ± 1.4 m) and sympatric (3.3 ± 1.4 m) situations. Occupied water depths largely reflected available water, but water depths <15 cm were avoided by salmon parr. Under experimental conditions, habitat use of allopatric salmon was density independent and salmon size had only minor effects, with smaller fish being more likely to occur in the shallow. Habitat use of salmon in sympatry with trout did not differ from allopatric salmon habitat use, and only salmon size had minor effects on depth choice – occurrence of trout or fish density had no effect. Allopatric trout was in general more frequent in the shallow habitat than salmon. Habitat use of sympatric trout was affected by the occurrence of salmon and trout size, resulting in a higher use of the shallow habitats for small trout. To conclude, selective segregation has a dominant role in salmon habitat use (not affected by trout occurrence), whereas a mixed situation occurs in trout habitat use with elements of interactive segregation when competing with Atlantic salmon (affected by salmon occurrence).     

Effects of intra‐ and interspecific competition and hydropeaking on growth of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)

The effects of hydropeaking and intra‐ and interspecific competition on the growth performance (growth in length, mass and lipid content) of juvenile Atlantic salmon Salmo salar and brown trout Salmo trutta were studied in six experimental channels (three experiencing hydropeaking and three controls with a stable discharge of water). Changes in the water‐covered area in the hydropeaking channels were small to avoid fish stranding. Each channel was divided into three similar‐sized sections and stocked with either low or high density of Atlantic salmon, or a mix of Atlantic salmon and brown trout, with the density of the latter equalling the high‐density treatment of Atlantic salmon. A marked effect of competition was visible as salmon in the low‐density treatment were significantly larger (27–33%) and had a higher mass (30–38%) than salmon in both the high‐density salmon treatment and the high‐density salmon and trout treatment. Hydropeaking had only minor and insignificant effects on the growth performance: overall final length, mass and body lipid content in the salmon experiencing hydropeaking differed by ?9%, ?7% and +2% compared with controls. Furthermore, there was no indication that the competitive regime influenced hydropeaking effects. The increase in both intra‐ and interspecific competition among the juvenile salmon had a pronounced and significant effect on growth. Our study adds to the growing evidence that energetic consequences of hydropeaking are likely to be small for Atlantic salmon and that stress and mortality associated with stranding represent the main source of population impact.     

Density of brown trout, Salmo trutta L., and Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., parr after point and scatter stocking of fry

Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., and brown trout, Salmo trutta L., fry were point and scatter stocked in the early part of June at densities of 63–263 fry 100 m⁻² per species in the River Viantienjoki, a small river in northern Finland, and their population densities were assessed in late summer. Both species were always stocked together in similar quantities. Point stocking was used in the first 2 years and scatter stocking in the following 2 years. In point stocking, there was no correlation between the distance from the stocking sites (maximum = 250 m) and parr density in census sites ( r = −0.013 and 0.019 for brown trout and Atlantic salmon, respectively). The stocking density of fry did not influence parr density in August by either method or by species. Stocking density explained only from 11% to 23% of the parr survival depending on the species or stocking method. The mean densities of Atlantic salmon and brown trout parr did not differ significantly from each other at any fishing site ( P > 0.05). Both point and scatter stocking appear to be suitable methods for use in small rivers. The parr densities depend more on the other factors (e.g. habitat quality) than the stocking method, and the choice between methods could be based on the time and labour available.     

River bed construction: impact and habitat restoration for juvenile Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., and brown trout, Salmo trutta L.

The River Soya, Norway, was canalized for agricultural purposes. In order to compensate for damage to the Atlantic salmon, salmo salar L. and brown trout, Salmo trutta L. populations, different weirs were built. The aims of this study were firstly to analyse the effects of weirs covering the river bank and entire river bottom with blasted stones and secondly, to analyse the effects of sediments transported by freshets on the downstream salmon and trout populations after canalization. Restoration of the river bottom with blasted stones provided salmon with more substrate spaces. Densities of trout increased after the river bank was covered with stones. Sediments transported downstream from the canalized river stretch decreased the densities of juvenile salmon and trout.     

A comparison of the effects of overhead cover on the growth,survival and haematology of juvenile Atlantic salmon,Salmo salar L., brown trout,Salmo trutta L., and rainbow trout,Salmo gairdneri Richardson

The provision of floating annular covers to conventional tangential-flow rearing tanks significantly increased the growth rate of underyearling Atlantic salmon during the period July–November. This increased the proportion of potential 1-year-old smolts from 22% to 38% of the population (P < 0.001). Salmon without access to overhead cover grew slowly and showed haematological signs of a chronic stress response (thrombocytopenia and lymphocytopenia). Mortality rates and the incidence of disease in the young salmon were not influenced by the provision of cover. Overhead cover had no significant effects on any of these parameters in underyearling brown trout and rainbow trout. These findings are discussed in relation to feeding opportunity and behavioural differences between speices.     

The effects of ration size on migration by hatchery‐raised Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and brown trout (Salmo trutta)

Abstract – The possibility to increase the proportion of migrating hatchery‐reared smolts by reducing their food ration was studied. Lake‐migrating, hatchery‐reared salmon (Salmo salar) and trout (Salmo trutta) smolts were either fed normal rations, based on recommendations from the fish‐farming industry, or reduced (15–20%) rations. They were released into the River Klarälven, western Sweden, and followed as they swam downstream to Lake Vänern, a distance of around 25 km. For both Atlantic salmon and brown trout, smolts fed a reduced ration migrated faster than fish fed a normal ration. Furthermore, a higher proportion of salmon smolts fed reduced rations migrated to the lake than fish fed normal rations in 2007 but not in 2006. This difference between years corresponded to greater treatment differences in size and smolt status in 2007 than in 2006. For trout, the proportion of migrating individuals and smolt development did not differ with ration size. Trout migrants fed a normal ration had a higher standard metabolic rate (SMR) than nonmigrants, whereas there was no difference in SMR between migrating and nonmigrating salmon. These results show that it is possible to use a reduced food ration to increase the migration speed of both Atlantic salmon and brown trout and to increase the proportion of migrating Atlantic salmon.     

Brown trout, Salmo trutta L.: a new species for intensive marine aquaculture

Abstract. Strains of two salmonid species, brown trout, Salmo trutta L., and Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., were compared for the purpose of marine aquaculture. Survival rate, growth and sexual maturation rate were investigated. Brown trout performances were good and allowed for intensive production.     

Piscine reovirus (PRV) in wild Atlantic salmon,Salmo salar L., and sea‐trout,Salmo trutta L., in Norway

This is the first comprehensive study on the occurrence and distribution of piscine reovirus (PRV) in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., caught in Norwegian rivers. PRV is a newly discovered reovirus associated with heart and skeletal muscle inflammation (HSMI), a serious and commercially important disease affecting farmed Atlantic salmon in Norway. A cross‐sectional survey based on real‐time RT‐PCR screening of head kidney samples from wild, cultivated and escaped farmed Atlantic salmon caught from 2007 to 2009 in Norwegian rivers has been conducted. In addition, anadromous trout (sea‐trout), Salmo trutta L., caught from 2007 to 2010, and anadromous Arctic char, Salvelinus alpinus (L.), caught from 2007 to 2009, were tested. PRV was detected in Atlantic salmon from all counties included in the study and in 31 of 36 examined rivers. PRV was also detected in sea‐trout but not in anadromous Arctic char. In this study, the mean proportion of PRV positives was 13.4% in wild Atlantic salmon, 24.0% in salmon released for stock enhancement purposes and 55.2% in escaped farmed salmon. Histopathological examination of hearts from 21 PRV‐positive wild and one cultivated salmon (Ct values ranging from 17.0 to 39.8) revealed no HSMI‐related lesions. Thus, it seems that PRV is widespread in Atlantic salmon returning to Norwegian rivers, and that the virus can be present in high titres without causing lesions traditionally associated with HSMI.     

Dispersion of stocked brown trout, Salmo trutta L., and landlocked salmon, Salmo salar L., from stocking sites in Lake Oulujärvi, Finland

Movement and recaptures of two hatchery-reared brown trout, Salmo trutta L., stocks and landlocked salmon, Salmo salar L., released at different sites in regulated Lake Oulujärvi, were studied in relation to release site. Five groups of fish from each stock were released in approximately equal numbers. Most of the fish released in June and July were recaptured within 3 months, whereas the majority of the fish released in early winter (October and November) were caught the following spring, about 7–9 months after stocking. The release site had a significant effect on recapture rate. The results showed that fishing restrictions targeted mainly at gill net fishing are needed to preserve the stocked fish from overfishing. Significantly fewer recaptures were observed from the landlocked salmon stocking compared with brown trout. The recaptures from the landlocked salmon stocking indicated more active movement and less clumping compared with the two brown trout stocks.     

Lipid energy reserves influence life-history decision of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and brown trout (S. trutta) in fresh water

Abstract –  Lipid density appears to influence life-history decisions in salmonid fishes. This study shows that parr and smolts of anadromous Atlantic salmon from a south Norwegian river have on average between 30 and 40% higher energy level than corresponding brown trout in spring and summer, which may explain differences in life-history traits between the two species. The higher energy density of young salmon was chiefly due to a 1.8 times higher lipid density in parr and 2.4 times higher lipid density in smolts. The difference was smaller among immature parr in the autumn, with only 1.4 times higher lipid density in salmon than trout. The reason for the decreased difference was probably that the more energy rich salmon parr had attained maturity at the time. Among mature male parr, the somatic energy density was approximately 10% higher in trout than salmon. However, the gonadal energy content was more than twice as high in salmon than in trout. The higher somatic energy allocation in parr of Atlantic salmon probably influences protein growth of the two species in fresh water, and increases the ability of salmon relative to trout to undertake long distance feeding migrations and make large investments in reproduction.     

Piscine orthoreovirus‐3 is prevalent in wild seatrout (Salmo trutta L.) in Norway

In 2017, a PCR‐based survey for Piscine orthoreovirus‐3 (PRV‐3) was conducted in wild anadromous and non‐anadromous salmonids in Norway. In seatrout (anadromous Salmo trutta L.), the virus was present in 16.6% of the fish and in 15 of 21 investigated rivers. Four of 221 (1.8%) Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) from three of 15 rivers were also PCR‐positive, with Ct‐values indicating low amounts of viral RNA. All anadromous Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus L.) were PCR‐negative. Neither non‐anadromous trout (brown trout) nor landlocked salmon were PRV‐3 positive. Altogether, these findings suggest that in Norway PRV‐3 is more prevalent in the marine environment. In contrast, PRV‐3 is present in areas with intensive inland farming in continental Europe. PRV‐3 genome sequences from Norwegian seatrout grouped together with sequences from rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum) in Norway and Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch Walbaum) in Chile. At present, the origin of the virus remains unknown. Nevertheless, the study highlights the value of safeguarding native fish by upholding natural and artificial barriers that hinder introduction and spread, on a local or national scale, of alien fish species and their pathogens. Accordingly, further investigations of freshwater reservoirs and interactions with farmed salmonids are warranted.     

Effect of sudden increase in discharge in a large river on newly emerged Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and brown trout (Salmo trutta) fry

Abstract– Downstrcam displacement of salmonid fry due to flow increase, from 12–15 m³/_s to >100 m³_s, was documented in the river Suldalslåen, Western Norway. In May only fry of brown trout ( Sulmo trutta ) occurred in the drift, while from the beginning of June only newly emerged Atlantic salmon ( Sulmo sular ) were found. The maximum number of Atlantic salmon fry drifting during a single day was estimated to be 17 000 individual. Their density in the drift was higher during the night than during the day, and their appearance in the drift coincided with the predicted period of emergence. Total brown trout numbers in the drift were estimated to vary between 4000 and 16 000 per day. Fry displaced downstream from the lowermost part of the river were lost from the population. The total losses were estimated to be between 75 000 and 100 000 Atlantic salmon fry which represents between 5.6 and 11.1%) of juvenile mortality during the first year of life.     

Homing behaviour of juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) within an off-channel habitat

Abstract – Although homing behaviour has been observed in juvenile Atlantic salmon, brown trout and resident cutthroat trout, this behaviour has not been well studied in juvenile Pacific salmon. We examined the site fidelity and homing behaviour of juvenile coho salmon ( Oncorhynchus kisutch ) by marking and relocating them within an off-channel habitat. Over 80% of displaced fish returned to the area from which they were originally collected. The proportion of fish that returned to the original location did not vary significantly among three sampling dates. However, we found that this proportion decreased over time in a brackish lagoon when we statistically analysed the data reported by Day (1966) . Our results suggest that juvenile coho salmon exhibit strong site fidelity and are able to return to their home ranges after displacement. These behaviours are likely to be important for the winter survival of juvenile coho salmon.     

Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L., brown trout Salmo trutta L. and Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus (L.): a review of aspects of their life histories

Abstract – Among the species in the family Salmonidae, those represented by the genera Salmo, Salvelinus, and Oncorhynchus (subfamily Salmoninae) are the most studied. Here, various aspects of phenotypic and life‐history variation of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L., brown trout Salmo trutta L., and Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus (L.) are reviewed. While many strategies and tactics are commonly used by these species, there are also differences in their ecology and population dynamics that result in a variety of interesting and diverse topics that are challenging for future research. Atlantic salmon display considerable phenotypic plasticity and variability in life‐history characters ranging from fully freshwater resident forms, where females can mature at approximately 10 cm in length, to anadromous populations characterised by 3–5 sea‐winter (5SW) salmon. Even within simple 1SW populations, 20 or more spawning life‐history types can be identified. Juveniles in freshwater can use both fluvial and lacustrine habitats for rearing, and while most smolts migrate to sea during the spring, fall migrations occur in some populations. At sea, some salmon undertake extensive oceanic migrations while other populations stay within the geographical confines of areas such as the Baltic Sea. At the other extreme are those that reside in estuaries and return to freshwater to spawn after spending only a few months at sea. The review of information on the diversity of life‐history forms is related to conservation aspects associated with Atlantic salmon populations and current trends in abundance and survival. Brown trout is indigenous to Europe, North Africa and western Asia, but was introduced into at least 24 countries outside Europe and now has a world‐wide distribution. It exploits both fresh and salt waters for feeding and spawning (brackish), and populations are often partially migratory. One part of the population leaves and feeds elsewhere, while another part stays as residents. In large, complex systems, the species is polymorphic with different size morphs in the various parts of the habitat. Brown trout feed close to the surface and near shore, but large individuals may move far offshore. The species exhibits ontogenetic niche shifts partly related to size and partly to developmental rate. They switch when the amount of surplus energy available for growth becomes small with fast growers being younger and smaller fish than slow growers. Brown trout is an opportunistic carnivore, but individuals specialise at least temporarily on particular food items; insect larvae are important for the young in streams, while littoral epibenthos in lakes and fish are most important for large trout. The sexes differ in resource use and size. Females are more inclined than males to become migratory and feed in pelagic waters. Males exploit running water, near‐shore and surface waters more than females. Therefore, females feed more on zooplankton and exhibit a more uniform phenotype than males. The Arctic charr is the northernmost freshwater fish on earth, with a circumpolar distribution in the Holarctic that matches the last glaciation. Recent mtDNA studies indicate that there are five phylogeographic lineages (Atlantic, Arctic, Bering, Siberian and Acadian) that may be of Pleistocene origin. Phenotypic expression and ecology are more variable in charr than in most fish. Weights at maturation range from 3 g to 12 kg. Population differences in morphology and coloration are large and can have some genetic basis. Charr live in streams, at sea and in all habitats of oligotrophic lakes, including very deep areas. Ontogenetic habitat shifts between lacustrine habitats are common. The charr feed on all major prey types of streams, lakes and near‐shore marine habitats, but has high niche flexibility in competition. Cannibalism is expressed in several cases, and can be important for developing and maintaining bimodal size distributions. Anadromy is found in the northern part of its range and involves about 40, but sometimes more days in the sea. All charr overwinter in freshwater. Partial migration is common, but the degree of anadromy varies greatly among populations. The food at sea includes zooplankton and pelagic fish, but also epibenthos. Polymorphism and sympatric morphs are much studied. As a prominent fish of glaciated lakes, charr is an important species for studying ecological speciation by the combination of field studies and experiments, particularly in the fields of morphometric heterochrony and comparative behaviour.