Application of five DNA marker techniques to distinguish between five apple (Malus × domestica Borkh.) cultivars and their sports

Summary

Genetic variation between five apple cultivars (‘Golden Delicious’, ‘Gala’, ‘Jonagold’, ‘?ampion’, and ‘Idared’) and ten of their sports (‘Golden Delicious Reinders’, ‘Goldrosio’, ‘Gala Must’, ‘Gala Schniga Schnitzer’, ‘Jonagored’, ‘Jonagold Excel’, ‘Szampion Arno’, ‘Szampion Reno Malinowy’, ‘Idaredest’, and ‘Red Idared’) was investigated using five types of DNA markers: Inter-Simple Sequence Repeats (ISSR), Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR), Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP), Sequence-Specific Amplified Polymorphism (S-SAP), and Inter-Primer Binding Site (iPBS) amplification. In total, 941 polymorphic amplified fragments were obtained using 12 ISSR, 12 SSR, ten AFLP, 19 iPBS, and 15 S-SAP primers or primer pairs. Four of the above-described techniques (except for SSRs with the primer pairs used in this study) were able to distinguish between the sports and their parental cultivar. The most effective technique to distinguish between the genotypes analysed was S-SAP, which detects variations in DNA regions flanking retrotransposon insertion sites.The combined use of ISSR,AFLP, iPBS, and S-SAP markers identified and distinguished all of the sports tested.     

Ästhetische Premiumfrüchte trotz nasser Klimate – Obstbau in Südkorea

Horticulture Korea today earns 10 billion euros, to which fruit contributes 2.6 billion euros and vegetable production 6.7 billion euros. Apple, kaki, nashi, grape and Citrus contribute 100,000?ha to the overall fruit acreage of 188,000?ha. Koreas fruit industry stagnates and lacks trainees. The consolidation in the apple industry in the last ten years from 53,000?ha in 1995 to 26,000?ha today was due to over-sized aged trees on vigorous rootstocks and – by Asian standard – small-sized, sour, green and low-priced apple varieties like ‘Golden Delicious’. The new Korean cultivars ‘Hongro’ (12%) and ‘Kamhong’ (3%) supersede – apart from the major cv. ‘Fuji’ with a 65 % market share- late ripening and poorly coloured Japanese cv. ‘Tsugaru’ (8%) and ‘Kogetsu’ (5%). Apple harvest extends from August until mid November. The 200,000?t strawberries are from protected cultivation on 7,000?ha. Korea produces 2.3 million t fruit and is largely self-sufficient (84%) for fruit, except for bananas and Citrus, with 440,000?t imports and 33,000?t exports (Satsuma mandarins and Nashi to Taiwan and Japan) and 92% self-sufficiency for vegetables. Fruit consumption of 56?kg/head is half that in Germany with 120?kg/head and vegetable consumption with 170?kg/ha twice that in Germany of 90?kg/head. Apart from university research, the rural development agency (RDA) comprises a central horticultural research institute (NHRI) in Suwon with a dedicated apple (Gunwi, Daegu) and nashi (Naju) research station with extension service. Apples, peaches and nashi are bagged, particularly for export, to fulfil the fruit quality requirements. These comprise a cosmetic skin finish free of blemishes and lenticels, 250–400?g fruit mass, (dark) red colouration and sweet (13–18?° Brix) taste without acidity (0.3–0.4%), resulting in a sugar acid ratio of ca. 43?:?1 with farmgate prices of 2.4?€/kg and retail prices of 2.8–4.8?€/fruit. Historic, Japan inflicted, measures such as defoliating of fruit-bearing branches and bagging to protect the peel, which will be consequently removed with valuable nutrients, are now being questioned and re-considered. Overhead irrigation protects the orchards from frost and hence prevents alternate bearing. Korean apple orchards are devoid of apple scab (Venturia inaequalis), apple canker (Nectria galligena) and fire blight (Erwinia amylovora), despite large annual precipitation of 1,000–1,500?mm, and hence require few pesticides. With farm sizes of 0.8?ha, the 41,000 fruit farmers are not very mechanised; 3% of them subscribe to organic farming and a quarter to a voluntary IFP scheme. GAP is discussed, but QS-EUREP GAP quality schemes are not implemented given the large farm number and few fruit exports.     

论我国苹果品种的更新问题

‘国光’、‘金冠’、‘红星’、‘倭巾’、‘青香蕉’、‘大国光’等是我国主要栽培的苹果品种:其中‘国光’在辽宁省占比重60%—70%,在山东及黄河故道地区占30%—40%,虽然‘国光’在辽东半岛和胶东半岛适应性强、产量高、耐贮藏,但果个小,着色差在国际市场上缺乏竞争力,而且在黄河故道地区裂果严重,急需进行更新,‘金冠’、‘红星’贮藏性差、‘倭巾’、‘青香蕉’、‘大国光’品质不良,作者根据苹果发展趋势和我国具体条件提出一套更新品种组合.认为‘红富士’、‘华冠’(‘金冠’ב富士’)和‘华帅’(‘富士’ב新红星’)应是我国今后主要更新的品种,三者在生产中所占比重应在80%—90%,后两个品种,一个可代替‘金冠’,一个则代替‘红星’.     

Energiebilanzen für Obstimporte: Äpfel aus Deutschland oder Übersee?

This work compares the primary energy requirement for apples marketed in Germany in April which were either home-grown in Germany or imported from overseas. The primary energy requirement was calculated for apples (cv. ‘Braeburn’ and ‘Golden Delicious’) picked during mid-October near Bonn, Germany, with subsequent 5-month on-site CA storage at ca. 1°C until mid-March. This was compared with energy requirements for apples of the same cultivar grown in a Southern hemisphere winter in Hawke’s Bay, New Zealand or Grabouw-Elgin, Western Cape, South Africa, picked in March, and with subsequent 28- or 14-day transport, respectively, on reefers to Antwerp for sale in April in Germany. The primary energy required for cultivating Braeburn apples in New Zealand (ca. 2.1 MJ/kg apple fruit) represented 38% of their overall primary energy requirement, compared with 2.8 MJ/kg fruit in Germany or South Africa, with smaller harvests of 40 t/ha cf. 90 t/ha in New Zealand. Braeburn and Golden Delicious apples grown and stored locally in Germany consumed nearly 6 MJ/kg fruit, which included ca. 0.8 MJ/kg for 5-month CA storage during the winter. This compared favourably with 7.2–7.5 MJ/kg for overseas shipment from New Zealand or South Africa, i.e. a 22–27% greater energy requirement for imported fruits. The CA storage of home-grown apples in Germany partially compensated for the energy required to import the fresh fruit from overseas. To compensate fully for imports from South Africa or New Zealand, home-grown apples had to be stored locally for ca. 9 or 18 months, respectively, i.e. in the latter case beyond the next harvest. The lower primary energy required for domestic apple fruit is discussed with respect to providing local employment, fruit orchards preserving the countryside, fruit quality, food safety and quality assurance schemes such as QS and EUREP-GAP, food security of local fruit, and networking favouring regional produce.     

Determination of Energy Use Efficiency of some Apple (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Malus x domestica</Emphasis>) Production in Turkey: a Case Study of Eğirdir Region

This research aims to make an analysis of energy use efficiency of apple (‘Starkrimson Delicious’ and ‘Golden Delicious’) production in E?irdir region of Turkey, during the production season of 2012. Production data this research was collected in 2013. In order to determine the energy use efficiency of apple, various surveys have been conducted in 71 apple farms, selected through Simple Random Sampling method, located in E?irdir region of Turkey. The data have been collected through face to face questionnaires and first hand observations. The energy input and output values in apple production have been calculated as 34,703.63 MJ ha^?1 and 95,034 MJ ha^?1, respectively. Energy inputs consist of diesel fuel energy by 29.04?%, chemical fertilizers energy by 24.28?%, machinery energy by 15.70?%, chemical energy by 9.84?%, human labor energy by 8.54?%, electricity energy by 5.63?%, irrigation energy by 3.97?%, farmyard manure energy by 2.88?% and lime energy by 0.12?%. Energy use efficiency, energy productivity, specific energy and net energy in apple production have been calculated as 2.74, 1.16 kg MJ^?1, 0.86 MJ kg^?1 and 60,330.36 MJ ha^?1, respectively. The total energy input consumed has been classified as direct, by 47.17?%, indirect, by 52.83?%, renewable, by 15.38?% and non-renewable, by 74.62?%.     

Sind Pollenspritzungen oder Pollendispenser Alternativen zur herkömmlichen Bestäubung der Apfelbäume durch Bienen?

The efficacy of different methods of applying cv. ‘Golden Delicious‘ pollen to ‘Cox Orange‘ apple trees inside insect-proof cages was investigated: (1) spraying pollen suspended in water directly into the trees while they were in bloom (treatment A); (2) pollen transfer by honeybees (treatment B) or by bumblebees (treatment C), both of which had to pass through a dispenser loaded with cv. ‘Golden Delicious‘ pollen; (3) transfer by honeybees of pollen from cv ‘Golden Delicious‘ trees bearing compatible pollen and maintained in pots within the same cages (treatment D). Naturally pollinated cv. ‘Cox Orange‘ apple trees outside the cages in the orchard served as controls. For methods A–C normal commercially available ‘Golden Delicious‘ pollen was used for hand pollination, and its efficacy was assessed with reference to the amount of fruit that set. The fruit-set at the time of harvesting differed significantly (Nemenyi test) with the different methods of pollination: 1.0% (±2.0) of the blossoms ripened to yield marketable apples after treatment A, 6.1% (±5.2) after treatment B, 4.9% (±4.6) after treatment C, and 20.4% (±11.5) after treatment D, while the corresponding figure for the control trees was 7.3% (±2.8) and that for hand pollination, 41,9%. The low fruit-set after an aqueous suspension of cv. ‘Golden Delicious‘ pollen was sprayed on the test trees shows that this procedure did not result in adequate pollination. The density of pollen grains was determined on filter papers during spraying and was an average of 3 (±2.6, range 0.0–8.6) pollen grains/cm². When the pollen dispensers were used, the fruit-set was lower than on the hand-pollinated control trees. Despite the success of manual pollination with exogenous cv. ‘Golden Delicious‘ pollen, pollen spraying to enhance pollination, as specified in current instructions, cannot be recommended for commercial apple growing in Germany.     

Studies on the hawthorn (Crataegus azarolus L.): III. A potential rootstock for ‘Golden Delicious9 apple and ‘Williams’ pear

Seedlings of the hawthorn Crataegus azarolus L. were budded with ‘Williams’ pear and ‘Golden Delicious’ apple and followed for compatibility, growth control, precocity and suckering. Four years of observations indicated that the hawthorn is compatible with ‘Williams’ and ‘Golden Delicious’, conferring growth control and precocity; and producing suckers profusely. On the other hand, bud break in ‘Williams’ started 10 d earlier and gave longer shoots than ‘Golden Delicious’. Delayed symptoms of incompatibility and long-term reciprocal influences require further study.     

Estimation of the Colour Properties of Apples Varieties Using Neural Network

The consumer acceptance and the quality standard of agricultural products such as apple are determined mostly by their colour. Colour is measured with a colorimeter and quantified using the C.I.E. L^*, a^*, b^* colour space system. It is used commonly by researchers for the classification and identification of apple fruit. To the best of our knowledge, the present study is the first study investigating the prediction of some colour properties of six apple varieties through artificial neural networks (ANN). The apple varieties are ‘Amasya’, ‘Starking’, ‘Granny Smith’, ‘Pink Lady’, ‘Golden Delicious’, ‘Arapk?z?’ and the colour properties are L^* (lightness), a^* (redness), b^* (yellowness), C^* (chroma), h^* (hue angle), CI (chroma index). General Regression Neural Networks (GRNN) and Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Interface System (ANFIS) structures were employed to predict the colour properties. According to the experimental and simulation results, the proposed ANFIS predictor had a superior performance in prediction of these colour parameters.     

In vitro germination of apple pollens

In order to characterize pollen viability and germinability by biochemical parameters, an introductory investigation was made of the germinability in vitro of pollen of 2 apple cultivars, ‘Golden Delicious’ and ‘Starkrimson’, partially self-incompatible and totally self-incompatible, respectively. Best results of percent germination were obtained for both cultivars after 120 min incubation in Petri dishes at 30°C in a medium containing 0.2 M sucrose, 20 μg/ml H₃BO₃, 300 μg/ml Ca(NO₃)₂ · 4H₂O. Optimum pH was 6.0 for ‘Starkrimson’ and 7.0 for ‘Golden Delicious’.     

黄色苹果新品种‘华月’

‘华月’苹果是以‘金冠’为母本,‘华富’为父本杂交育成的新品种。果实圆柱形,平均单果质量230g;果皮黄色,阳面带红晕;果肉肉质,似‘富士’风味。晚熟,抗寒,高抗苹果早期落叶病、果实轮纹病。     

The Growth of Apple Central Fruits as Affected by Thinning with NAA,BA and Naphthenic Acids

Plant growth regulators such as α?naphthylacetic acid (NAA) or 6?benzyladenine (BA) are commonly used for thinning apple fruits. NAs exhibits an auxin- and gibberellin-type biological activity, stimulate the uptake and translocation of auxins in plant tissue, as well as IAA synthesis and act as surfactants. It was assumed that NAs applied at the stadium of early fruit growth might cause fruit abscission in apple, similarly to NAA. The goal of the research was to test the presumed thinning effect of naphthenic acids on apple cultivars ‘Golden Delicious’ and ‘Red Delicious’. Three treatments were applied on both apple cultivars including 16.5?μL L^?1 NAA, 200?μL L^?1?BA and 2.63?mg L^?1?potassium salts of NAs. Cortical cell size and the number of cell layers were measured in order to determine the contribution of cell size and cell division in early fruit growth, as affected by chemical thinning treatments. The effects of plant growth regulators NAA, BA and NAs on fruit set, fruit size and the anatomy of the fruit cortex highly depend on varietal differences. In ‘Golden Delicious’ fruit set reduction by chemical thinning increases both the number of cell layers and cell size of apple fruit, while in ‘Red Delicious’ NAA inhibits fruit growth, while BA is ineffective. Cell growth promoting activity of NAA and NAs, accompanied by the decrease in fruit set and reduced competition among fruits within the canopy, results in a significant fruit weight increase at harvest. The research confirms the auxinic properties of NAs, and their assumed thinning activity.     

Comparison of Climate Change Effects on Pome And Stone Fruit Phenology Between Balkan Countries and Bonn/Germany

The objective of the joint project between the two universities of Bonn and Sarajevo was to study the effects of climate change associated with warmer winter and spring temperatures on fruit tree phenology. Changes in flowering date of apple and cherry were correlated with local weather data obtained concomitantly on-site at four locations in the Balkan countries Slovenia, Serbia, B & H and at Bonn, Germany.Phenological data of flower opening (F1; BBCH 61) of apple cv. ‘Golden Delicious’ originated from 55 years at Cacak (44?°N, Serbia) and at Klein-Altendorf, University of Bonn (50?°N), cv. ‘Bobovec’ from the University of Ljubljana (46?°N, Slovenia) and cherry cv. ‘Burlat’ (35 years at Klein-Altendorf, 50?°N) and 20–30 years at Tuzla (44?°N, B & H) and Mostar (43?°N, Bosnia & Herzegovina; B & H).The annual precipitation showed a negligible change in the last 55 years of ±5% in the Balkan countries (e.?g. Cacak, 699?mm), but only ±1.8% at Klein-Altendorf (605?mm) with a slight shift to more winter rainfall.Regression analysis showed an increase in mean temperature of 1.7?°C (annual) and 1.45?°C for the vegetation period at Klein-Altendorf (last 55 years), Germany. In the evaluated Balkan stations, the greatest increase in annual air temperature between two climate phases (until 1987 versus from 1988 until now) was at Ljubljana (1.4?°C) and Cacak (1.2?°C) in contrast to the least increase (0.3?°C) at Tuzla (annual average 10?°C) and an intermediate value (0.9?°C) in the warmer Mostar (annual average 14.5?°C).This recent temperature increase advanced flower opening by 10–14 days for apple such as cv. ‘Golden Delicious’ at Cacak and 7–10 days (last 55 years) at Bonn and 4–5 days (last 35 years) for the early cherry cv. ‘Burlat’ at Klein-Altendorf/Bonn; at Mostar and Tuzla, the effect of climate change was greater with the early cherry cv. ‘Burlat’ (26 days) compared with the difference of the late cherry cultivar (16 days). Before recent climate change (1973–1987), cherry flower was advanced by 10 days in the warmer med climate at Mostar but delayed by 16 days in the cooler Tuzla. The results, i.?e. the flower advancement in the Continental climate but flower delay in the med climate, are discussed with respect to the risk of late frost and countermeasures to combat climate change effects.     

Spezifisches Gewicht neuer Apfelsorten

At the Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry Laimburg the specific weight of 121 apple varieties from the own variety collection was measured by a hydrostatic method (Archimedes principle) from 2007 to 2013. For this purpose samples of 10 apples per cultivar were collected mainly from the sites of Laimburg (220?m asl) and Laces (700 meters asl) and were examined annually at the same period with uniform fruits equal in size. The cultivars could be classified in specific weight classes from 0.75 to 0.91?g/cm³. 76% of the varieties were assigned to the middle classes since they had specific weights ranging from 0.80 to 0.86?g/cm³. ‘Golden Delicious’ was included within the specific “very light” varieties while ‘Braeburn’, ‘Nicoter Kanzi®’ and ‘Scifresh Jazz®’ were classified as “very heavy” varieties. The year and location do not significantly influence the specific weight, since this parameter depends rather on genetically caused factors such as the intercellular volume and the dry matter content of the fruit. The specific gravity can be an interesting complementary information to describe an apple variety.     

中晚熟苹果新品种‘华苹’

‘华苹’是以‘金冠’与‘惠’杂交育成的优良中晚熟苹果新品种。平均单果质量177 g。果实长圆形,果皮鲜红色,果面光洁,外观美丽,果肉黄白色,肉质松脆,汁液多,风味酸甜、微香,品质好。果实硬度7.1 kg · cm^-2,可溶性固形物含量12.84%,可溶性糖9.60%,可滴定酸0.64%,维生素C 0.056 mg · g^-1。在辽宁省辽西地区4月上中旬萌芽,5月上旬开花,9月下旬果实成熟,果实发育期140 d左右。较抗寒和抗枝干轮纹病,适宜在‘金冠’种植区发展。     

Effects of NAA and Carbaryl on Fruit Set and Return Bloom for Some Apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) Cultivars

Abstract

This research was conducted in 1997 and 1998 to investigate the effects of naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) (5, 10, and 15 ppm), Carbaryl (1-naphthyl N-methylcarbamate) (750, 1000, and 1250 ppm), and NAA + Carbaryl (5 + 750, 7.5 + 750, and 10 + 750 ppm) applications on the return bloom of some standard apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) cultivars grafted on MM106 rootstock. Of these applications, 750 ppm Carbaryl for ‘Starkspur Golden Delicious’, 1250 ppm Carbaryl for ‘Granny Smith’ and ‘Starkrimson Delicious’, and 5 ppm NAA for ‘Jonagold’ increased the mean number of flower buds significantly, compared with the control treatments. The other treatments of Carbaryl, NAA, and NAA + Carbaryl also increased the mean number of flower buds in a nonsignificant sense with a few exception. A negative correlation between the final fruit set and the mean number of next year's flower buds was found for three cultivars. The correlation coefficients were r = ?0.5150 (P< 0.05), r = ? 0.6999 (P< 0.05), r = ?0.0335 for ‘Starkspur Golden Delicious’, ‘Granny Smith’, and ‘Jonagold’ cultivars, respectively. However, this relationship was positive and nonsignificant for ‘Starkrimson Delicious’ (r = 0.1980).     

Einfluss von Erntezeitpunkt und Lagerverfahren auf die Druckstellenempfindlichkeit von Äpfeln

The influence of harvest date and storage method on bruises sensitivity of apples was investigated. The cultivars ‘Braeburn’, ‘Jonagold’ and ‘Golden Delicious’ were harvested at three times in an interval of 10 days. Fruits have been stored at 2°C in normal atmosphere (cold storage) or in film bags (CA-/ULO-storage; CA?=?Controlled Atmosphere, ULO?=?Ultra Low Oxygen) for three months. Monthly fruits were bruised by a penetrometer applying a range of pressures. One day later the appearance of bruises were evaluated. Increasing pressures resulted in bruises of increasing severity. Early harvest led to less severe bruises. No differences were observed in storage conditions, but duration of storage increased bruise sensitivity of ‘Braeburn’. In comparison of the three cultivars ‘Braeburn’ was less sensitive than ‘Jonagold’ and ‘Golden Delicious’.     

Resolving the Parentage of the Apple Cultivar ‘Meran’

In the mid-1970s, a new apple variety named ‘Meran’ was discovered in South Tyrol (northern Italy), which harbours the largest continuous apple growing area in Europe. The cultivar was registered for varietal protection and patented in several countries, and was declared to be a cross of the varieties ‘Golden Delicious’ and ‘Morgenduft’ (synonym ‘Rome Beauty’). The parentage of ‘Meran’ has, however, been questioned, and the present study aimed to assess the descent of this cultivar by the combined use of molecular genetic and bioinformatic tools. Five accessions of ‘Meran’ were collected from three different European germplasm collections and analysed at 14 variable microsatellite DNA loci. Subsequently, computer software was used to allocate the most likely parent pair from a set of cultivars representative for the apple growing area of South Tyrol in 1975. The molecular genetic data clearly excluded ‘Morgenduft’ as a gene donor to ‘Meran’ and provided strong evidence that ‘Meran’ is a cross of the cultivars ‘Golden Delicious’ and ‘Jonathan’, confirming previous assumptions based on morphological traits of the tree and fruit.     

保存8~33年的苹果试管苗增殖能力与端粒长度分析

为分析苹果试管种质端粒长度与繁殖能力、衰老的关系,探索端粒长度与苹果试管种质离体保存年限的关系,对保存多年的不同继代次数的3个苹果品种试管苗进行了表型、增殖能力以及端粒长度的研究。结果表明:保存了8~33年的‘富士’、保存8~27年的‘金冠’和保存8~25年的‘嘎拉’苹果茎尖试管苗继代增殖能力大部分没有变化,表型未发生明显变化;3个品种不同继代次数30 d苗龄试管苗叶片端粒长度均差异不显著;继代73代苗龄分别为10、30、50和90 d的试管苗叶片端粒长度变化因品种而异,‘富士’‘嘎拉’差异不显著,‘金冠’50 d苗龄的最长,90 d苗龄的最短;继代71代苗龄30 d的‘金冠’试管苗茎段端粒长度显著高于叶片,茎段和愈伤组织、叶片和愈伤组织之间差异不显著,‘嘎拉’表现为愈伤组织>叶片>茎段。苹果试管苗端粒长度变化与其增殖能力、表型及同一继代周期内衰老程度的变化相吻合。