Investigations on the effect of haulm destruction and additional root cutting on black scurf on potato tubers

In greenhouse experiments factors which are involved in the stimulation of sclerotia formation byRhizoctonia solani Kühn on potato tubers after haulm destruction were investigated. Cutting off the shoot stimulated the production of sclerotia as much as chemical haulm destruction. This was also observed when potato tubers were grown away from the roots in a separate compartment filled with steamed perlite. Fewer sclerotia were produced when roots were cut in addition to haulm destruction compared to haulm destruction alone. Cutting off the roots alone often stimulated sclerotia production. The data indicate that sclerotia production was directly affected by the tuber and probably due to physiological changes in the tuber caused by elimination of the shoot.Samenvatting In kasproeven werd onderzocht welke factoren betrokken zijn bij de stimulering van de produktie van sclerotiën op aardappel doorRhizoctonia solani Kühn als gevolg van loofvernietiging. Afknippen van het loof stimuleerde de vorming van sclerotiën evenzeer als chemische vernietiging. Na afknippen van het loof trad de stimulering ook op bij knollen, die zich ruimtelijk gescheiden van de wortels in gestoomd vochtig perliet konden ontwikkelen. Doodspuiten plus doorsnijden van de wortels resulteerde in minder lakschurft dan doodspuiten alleen. Wanneer alleen de wortels werden doorgesneden resulteerde dat vaak in meer lakschurft. De vorming van sclerotiën wordt dus direct door de knol beïnvloed. Dit effect lijkt voort te komen uit fysiologische veranderingen in de knol.     

Effect of periderm and water-soluble exudates of potato tubers on black scurf formation before and after haulm destruction

Tuber components which may account for the acceleration of black scurf formation after haulm destruction were investigated.Non-water-soluble components of the tuber periderm(NWSPC) seemed to promote the initiation of sclerotia and the pigmentation of hyphae ofRhizoctonia solani AG-3, but they did not induce maturation or affect growth of the sclerotia on tubers, regardless whether plants were untreated or shoots had been cut off (COS). After COS, hyphae became pigmented, but no sclerotia were initiated on hydrophilic filters which prevented hyphae to touch the skin of non-harvested tubers. No evidence was found that these NWSPC, skin surface structure, or residues of watersoluble exudate on skin play a major role in the stimulation of black scurf formation after COS.Precipitated water-soluble tuber exudate (PWSTE) did not promote the formation of sclerotia on agar plates or on periderm strips, even if sampled after COS. On plates with PWSTE sclerotia formed were of a more solid structure but no real black sclerotia or brown hyphae developed. After, COS, PWSTE became more light in colour and higher in osmotic value, but did not significantly change in pH, C/N ratio, amino acid content, content of some sugars or its cotton wool-like appearance. After COS, but not after haulm pulling, which breaks the stolons, PWSTE gave rise to a higher yield in dry weight and, more sand sticked to the tubers. This suggests that PWSTE may act as a glue which keeps more sand and sclerotia firmly attached to the skin at harvest after COS.From these observations it can be inferred that volatile or instable components (VIC) probably govern hyphal pigmentation and growth of sclerotia and play a role in sclerotial pigmentation. After COS, alterations in VIC seem to play a major role in the stimulation of black scurf. Within three days after COS, skin set was significantly increased, which may reduce exudation of components that inhibit the formation of black scurf.Samenvatting Met het oog op de versnelde vorming van lakschurft na loofdoding werd de invloed onderzocht van periderm en waterig knolexsudaat op de sclerotiënvorming doorRhizoctonia solani Kühn AG-3.Niet in water oplosbare componenten van epidermiscellen spelen, waarschijnlijk wel een rol bij de initiatie van sclerotiën en bruine hyfen op de knollen, maar niet bij de groei en afrijping van de sclerotiën. Dit geldt zowel voor onbehandelde planten als voor planten waarvan het loof afgeknipt is (COS = cutting off shoots). De sterkere toename van lakschurft na COS kan evenwel niet verklaard worden uit, veranderingen in de niet in water oplosbare schilcomponenten. Immers, wanneer filters waren aangebracht om de nog aan de plant vastzittende knollen, zodat direct kontakt tussen de hyfen en de schil was verhinderd, dan ontstonden er op die filters nooit sclerotiën en alleen na loofafknippen bruine hyfen. Verder werden er geen aanwijzingen gevonden dat veranderingen in de structuur van het schiloppervlak of in residuen van waterige exsudaten op de schil een rol spelen bij de stimulering van de lakschurftvorming na loofvernietiging.De totale produktie van sclerotiën op kunstmatige media en op periderm strips werd niet gestimuleerd door de toevoeging van geprecipiteerd waterig knolexudaat (PWSTE = precipitated water soluble tuber exudates), ongeacht of de monsters waren genomen van onbehandelde planten dan wel COS-planten. Op agarplaten met PWSTE werden de sclerotiën wel compacter in bouw, maar ze werden niet echt zwart en er ontstonden geen bruine hyfen. Na COS was PWSTE lichter van kleur en hoger in osmotische waarde, maar er traden geen significante veranderingen op in C/N-quotiënt, pH, gehalte aan aminozuren, eiwitten en sommige suikers, en in het wollige uiterlijk van PWSTE. Na COS, maar niet na looftrekken, dat de stolon breekt, nam het drooggewicht van PWSTE per eenheid van knoloppervlak toe en bleef er bij de oogst meer zand aan de knollen plakken Dit wijst erop, dat PWSTE als een hechtmiddel kan functioneren, waardoor, vooral na COS, bij de oogst meer zand en sclerotiën aan de knollen blijven zitten.De resultaten doen vermoeden dat vluchtige of instabiele componenten (VIC) de pigmentatie van hyfen en de groei van sclerotiën induceren en een rol spelen bij de pigmentatie van de sclerotiën. Tevens lijken veranderingen in VIC een hoofdrol te spelen bij de stimulering van lakschurft na loofdoding. De schilverkurking, die binnen drie dagen na loofdoding significant was toegenomen, zou de exsudatie kunnen verminderen van lakschurftremmende componenten.     

Effect of volatile and unstable exudates from underground potato plant parts on sclerotium formation by Rhizoctonia solani AG-3 before and after haulm destruction

The acceleration of black scurf development after haulm destruction was mainly due to changes in the exudation of volatiles from tubers. Volatile products from decomposing potato roots and stolons and, probably, unstable substances in the tuber exudate as well, further promoted sclerotium formation.Sclerotium production byR. solani AG-3 was investigated on agar media, periderm strips and harvested tubers, which were exposed to the volatile exudates from growing subterranean potato plant parts. The volatile exudate from growing tubers contained both inhibitory and stimulatory substances which were not identified definitely. Inhibition dominated during tuber growth, decreased when plants were yellowing and disappeared after the shoots were excised. When the inhibitory components were trapped by KOH, the non-trapped volatile tuber exudates from young growing plants were as stimulatory as those from plants after haulm killing. CO₂ might be an inhibitor as tuber respiration was negatively correlated to black scurf formation. Tests in vitro suggested that inhibition of sclerotium formation by CO₂ can be overcome by stimulatory nutrients. Sclerotium production on agar media was not stimulated by ethylene, although volatiles from harvested ripe apples were very stimulatory.The results imply that after haulm killing, the increase in black scurf development may be prevented by loosening the soil and quick separation of tubers from plant residues thus preventing accumulation of the stimuli.Samenvatting De vluchtige exsudaten van aardappelknollen, die nog aan de plant bevestigd zaten, beinvloedden de produktie van sclerotiën doorRhizoctonia solani AG-3 op agarplaten en op geoogste knollen, die geincubeerd waren in een plant-aarde systeem. Onder dezelfde proef- omstandigheden was de sclerotiënvorming op geincubeerde losse knollen veel hoger dan op de agarplaten, maar op peridermstrips juist lager. Wellicht dragen dus naast stabiele ook instabiele knolexsudaten bij tot de vorming van lakschurft.Het vluchtige knolexsudaat van jonge planten bleek zowel stimulerende als remmende componenten te bevatten. Als de remmende fractie met KOH werd weggevangen, stimuleerden de resterende uitademingsprodukten van jonge groeiende knollen de vorming van sclerotiën even sterk als de uitademingsprodukten van oude afrijpende knollen na loofvernietiging. Tijdens de knolgroei overheerste de invloed van de remmende exsudaten, maar dat nam af als de plant vergeelde en verdween na loofvernietigen. Toename van lakschurft na loofdoding berust dus vooral op het wegvallen van de remmende componenten. In de praktijk zou na loofdoding de effectiviteit van de stimulerende exudaten verminderd kunnen worden door de grond van de teeltrug los te maken waardoor ze niet kunnen ophopen aan het knoloppervlak.De remmende fractie kon worden weggevangen met KOH, wat betekent dat het gaat om koolzuur of een andere zure component. Inderdaad bleek de produktie van koolzuur door knollen geleidelijk af te nemen tijdens de veroudering en zeer snel na loofdoding. Daarnaast is bekend dat lakschurft geleidelijk toeneemt bij veroudering van de plant, en zeer snel na loofdoding. In vitro leek koolzuur de sclerotiënvorming alleen op wateragar te remmen, maar niet op een voedzamer medium. De sclerotiënvorming op agarmedia werd sterk gestimuleerd door gasvormige produkten van appels. Echter, er werd geen bevestiging gevonden voor het idee dat het stress-produkt ethyleen sclerotiënvorming stimuleert. Na het loofafknippen lekte er een veel grotere hoeveelheid water uit de knollen dan uit knollen van intacte planten. Water kan het benutten van voedzame stoffen door de schimmel bevorderen. Daardoor kan een manier van loofdoden die de stolon breekt de kans op lakschurft verkleinen.Gasvormige produkten van afstervende wortels en stolonen hadden geen invloed op de sclerotiënvorming op agarplaten. Maar wel versterkten zij de lichte stimulering die uitging van afrijpende knollen. In de praktijk zouden jonge potaardappelen dus milieuvriendelijker beschermd kunnen worden tegen zowel virusinfectie als zware lakschurft-vorming met een nieuw-te-ontwikkelen methode van groen-rooien die de stolonen breekt en de knollen op het veld laat afharden in losse grond en gescheiden van de overige planteresten.     

Anastomosis Groups, Pathogenicity and Sensitivity to Fungicides of Rhizoctonia solani Isolates Collected on Potato Crops in France

A collection of 241 isolates of Rhizoctonia solani obtained from potato plants grown in different areas in France was characterized for anastomosis grouping, symptomatology on tubers of different cultivars and sensitivity to three fungicides. Most isolates collected belonged to (anastomosis groups (AGs)) AG 3, but 2% and 4% of the isolates were AG 5 and AG 2-1. AG 3 and AG 2-1 isolates were mostly obtained from sclerotia on tubers, but all AG 5, some AG 3 and some AG 2-1 isolates were recovered from superficial tuber alterations, like deformations, corky or scabby lesions. Sclerotia were formed on tubers produced by healthy stem cuttings grown in soil artificially infested with AG 3, but not on tubers grown in soil infested with either AG 5 or AG 2-1. No variation in susceptibility to sclerotial formation was observed among five potato cultivars. In all cases, a large proportion of tubers showed superficial corky lesions, often associated with deformations. The proportion of tubers with lesions and deformations was highest in soil infested with AG 2-1 and significantly lower on cv. Samba in all treatments. All isolates were highly sensitive to flutolanil, iprodione and pencycuron, except the AG 5 isolates, moderately sensitive to pencycuron. These results show that, although AG 3 is the most common R. solani group on potato in France, AG 5 and AG 2-1 may be present. Isolates differed for pathogenicity. In vitro sensitivity to fungicides varied among AGs.     

Phosphite compounds reduce disease severity in potato seed tubers and foliage

Phosphites (Phi) are alkali metal salts of phosphorous acid, with the ability to protect plants against different pathogens. In this research, the effect of Phi applied to potato plants on severity of three important potato diseases in Argentina was assessed. Seed tubers and foliage of potato cvs Shepody and Kennebec were treated with Phi to assess effects on resistance against Phytophthora infestans, Fusarium solani and Rhizoctonia solani. Protection resulting from Phi treatment in seed tubers was high against P. infestans, intermediate against F. solani, and low against R. solani. In addition, seed tubers treated with calcium or potassium phosphites (CaPhi and KPhi, respectively) at 1% of commercial product emerged earlier than untreated ones. When Phi were foliarly applied two or four times at different doses, high levels of protection against P. infestans were achieved in both cultivars. Higher protection was observed in Kennebec when CaPhi was applied, while in Shepody this was true for KPhi. Expression of β-1,3-glucanases was induced at different times after treatment but no correlation between β-1,3-glucanases expression and foliar protection level was found. On the other hand, Phi positive protection effects did not produce negative effects in plant growth. Leaves from CaPhi-treated plants showed a darker green colour than leaves from control plants; also an increase in Rubisco protein and a delay in crop senescence was observed.     

Effect of crop rotation on the incidence of soil-borne fungal diseases of potato

Effects of crop rotation on the incidence of soil-borne pathogens and on the performance of potato were investigated in five field experiments. Rotations differed in cropping frequency of potato and in crop sequence.Incidence of stem canker caused byRhizoctonia solani was strongly influenced by the cropping frequency of potato and not by crops with which the potato was alternated in the rotation. Cropping frequency of potato also affected the occurrence of black scurf, but less pronounced than for stem canker. The antagonistVerticillium bigutatum slightly reducedR. solani (black scurf) in plots on sandy soil continuously cropped with potato. Incidence of stem canker was also strongly affected by granular nematicides applied to the soil, nitrogen level and the cultivar grown.     

Biological control of Rhizoctonia solani on potatoes by antagonists. 3. Inoculation of seed potatoes with different fungi

Inoculation of seed potatoes withVerticillium biguttatum and three other hyperparasitic fungi, alone or in combination, resulted in statistically significant reduction of infestation of potato plants byRhizoctonia solani. Gliocladium roseum, Trichoderma hamatum andHormiactis fimicola did not show prolonged protection againstR. solani under farming conditions.H. fimicola, however, inhibited mycelial growth ofR. solani in vitro, particularly in the lower temperature range whereV. biguttatum did not show any growth. Combining these two antagonistic fungi may be advantageous as they cover the entire temperature range in whichR. solani is active. At the end of the vegetation period,V. biguttatum was superseded byG. roseum.Production of sclerotia on newly formed tubers from seed potatoes inoculated withV. biguttatum (alone or in combination with the other three antagonists) was significantly reduced.Samenvatting Inoculative van pootaardappelen metVerticillium biguttatum, apart of sament met drie andere hyperparasieten, had een gunstig effect op het onderdrukken vanRhizoctonia solani op de plant;Trichoderma hamatum, Gliocaldium roseum enHormiactis fimicola, ieder apart toegediend, boden de plant op lange termijn geen bescherming tegenR. solani onder praktijkomstandigheden.H. fimicola bleek bij lage temperatuur, waarbijV. biguttatum geen groei-activiteit meer vertoonde, op hyfen en sclerotiën vanR. solani te kunnen groeien. Toepassing van deze schimmel enV. biguttatum in een gemengde inoculatie zou over een breder temperatuurtraject effectief kunnen zijn.Tegen het einde van het groeiseizoen vond er op de ondergrondse plantedelen een verschuiving plaats, waarbijG. roseum meer op de voorgrond trad. Verondersteld wordt dat de afname vanV. biguttatum op stolonen hiervan een gevolg was.De produktie van sclerotia op nieuwe aardappelen afkomstig van metV. biguttatum behandeld pootgoed (alleen of met andere hyperparasitaire schimmels) bleek sterk verminderd te zijn. Vooral dit gegeven maakt de biologische bestrijding vanR. solani interessant:V. biguttatum blijkt ook op lange termijn effectief te zijn.     

Biological control of Rhizoctonia solani on potatoes by antagonists. 4. Inoculation of seed tubers with Verticillium biguttatum and other antagonists in field experiments

Inoculation of seed potatoes with the mycoparasiteVerticillium biguttatum, isolate M73 (combined withGliocladium roseum in 1981, either alone or mixed with isolate M180 plus antibiotics-producing isolates ofAzotobacter chroococcum in 1982) repeatedly proved successful in reducingRhizoctonia solani on stolons and stems. In field experiments, this ultimately led to a reduced formation of sclerotia on new tubers, particularly in neutral sandy loam and clay loam soils. In 1981 inoculation with antagonists led, when compared with no inoculation, to average reductions of 22 and 42% for the harvest from clean, and 15 and 26% for the harvest from infected seed tubers grown on slightly acid sandy soils and on neutral loam soils, respectively. The harvest from clean, inoculated seed tubers had the lowest sclerotium index. In 1982 inoculation of seed tubers planted in slightly acid sandy soils gave reductions of the sclerotium index of up to 22%. In the neutral marine loam soils considerable reductions were often achieved, viz., in slightly infected loams 51–68% and in rather heavily infected ones 4–43%. Chemical disinfection of seed tubers proved effective only in loam soils that were slightly infested withR. solani. In both years inoculation of seed tubers with antagonists led to significantly lower sclerotium indices of the harvest (p=0.1% in 1981; p=5% in 1982). V. biguttatum was present more frequently and in greater densities on stems and stolons of plants from inoculated than from non-inoculated seed tubers. The latter were colonized by wildV. biguttatum strains from the soil, apparently less effective antagonists.Early in the season, the soil temperature was too low for growth ofV. biguttatum. Nevertheless, inoculation of tubers that were planted early resulted in a considerable cotrol ofR. solani.Samenvatting Het beënten van poters met de opRhizoctonia solani parasiterende schimmelVerticillium biguttatum isolaat M73 in combinatie metGliocladium roseum (1981) of metV. biguttatum M73 alleen of in combinatie met isolaat M180 plus antibiotische isolaten van de bacterieAzotobacter chroococcum (1982), bleek effectief in het terugdringen of het onderdrukken vanR. solani op stengels en stolonen en het verminderen van de aantasting.Beënting van het pootgoed leidde tot een vermindering van de sclerotium (lakschurft)-vorming op de nieuwe knollen, vooral in klei-en zavelgronden. In 1981 leidde beënting van poters tot reductie in de sclerotiumvorming van gemiddeld 22 en 42% voor de oogst uit schoon en 15 en 26% voor de oogst uit besmet pootgoed geteeld op respectievelijk zandgrond en klei- en zavelgrond.In 1982 leidde beënten van de poters uitgeplant in licht zure zandgrond tot een gemiddelde reductie van de sclerotiumindex van de oogst van 22%. In zwaar besmette zandgrond trad evenwel geen reductie op; de infectiedruk was hier te groot. In de neutrale zavel- en kleigronden, vaak ook in de zwaarder besmette percelen werden aanzienlijke reducties bereikt, in de licht besmette gemiddeld 51–68% en in de zwaarder besmette 4–43%. Ontsmetten van pootgoed bleek alleen effectief in percelen die licht metR. solani waren besmet.In beide jaren bleek beënten van pootgoed met antagonisten te resulteren in een significant lagere sclerotiumindex van de oogst (p=0,1% in 1981; p=5% in 1982). V. biguttatum was veel vaker en meer aanwezig op de ondergrondse stengeldelen en stolonen van planten uit beënt pootgoed dan op die van niet beënte poters. De laatsten werden gekoloniseerd door wilde stammen vanV. biguttatum uit de grond, die vaak minder effectieve antagonisten waren. Beënting van vroeg gepote knollen — als de temperatuur nog te laag is voor de groei vanV. biguttatum — leverde toch gunstige resultaten op.     

Interactions Between the Potato Cyst Nematode Globodera rostochiensis and Diseases Caused by Rhizoctonia solani AG3 in Potatoes Under Field Conditions

Findings from 2 years of field experiments investigating the relationship between Globodera rostochiensis and Rhizoctonia solani on unique field sites are reported. In 2000, a field experiment was positioned on land that had previously been used for experimental work investigating integrated potato cyst nematode (PCN) management methods. This study had produced an ‘untypical’ mosaic of PCN population densities ranging from 5 to 221 eggs g⁻¹ soil. In 2001, the field experiment was conducted on a different field site and overlaid on a focus of G. rostochiensis population densities ranging from 11 to 108 eggs g⁻¹ soil. In each experiment, potatoes (cv. Désirée) were grown in plots with similar population densities of G. rostochiensis that were either uninoculated or inoculated with R. solani. A series of potato plant harvests were undertaken to investigate the effects of nematode infestation on the incidence and severity of R. solani diseases and the associated development of plants. In both experiments, a clear relationship was found between the density of G. rostochiensis juveniles present in potato roots and the incidence of stolons infected by R. solani, 6 weeks after planting. For the first time this interaction has been determined under field conditions. The results of the study suggest that the interaction between nematode and fungus is indirect and possible mechanisms are discussed.     

新化合物氟醚菌酰胺的抑菌活性及其对棉花立枯丝核菌的作用方式研究

采用菌丝生长速率法测定了新化合物氟醚菌酰胺(LH-2010A)对10种常见植物病原菌的毒力,同时研究了其对棉花立枯丝核菌无性繁殖过程、菌丝形态及细胞膜通透性的影响。结果表明:氟醚菌酰胺对10种病原菌均具有较强的抑菌活性,比结构相似的选择性杀菌剂氟吡菌胺具有更广的杀菌谱。氟醚菌酰胺对棉花立枯丝核菌和番茄灰霉病菌的抑菌活性最高,EC50值均小于1.00 μg/mL,对其他8种病原菌的EC50值则在1.10~4.63 μg/mL之间;而氟吡菌胺只对辣椒疫霉和马铃薯晚疫病菌具有较高的抑菌活性,EC50值分别为0.61和0.72 μg/mL。在100.0 μg/mL下,氟醚菌酰胺对棉花立枯丝核菌抑菌作用明显,能显著抑制其菌核产生和菌丝生长量,使菌丝分支增多、变短、变粗;以不同浓度的氟醚菌酰胺处理棉花立枯丝核菌时,其细胞膜的通透性随着药剂浓度的增加而显著增大,520 min时最高处理浓度下的相对渗率为77.01%。表明氟醚菌酰胺对多种植物病原菌具有较高的抑菌活性,并能明显抑制棉花立枯丝核菌的多项生理指标。     

Effect of label and sublabel rates of metam sodium in combination with<Emphasis Type="Italic">Trichoderma hamatum,T. harzianum,T. virens,T. viride</Emphasis> on survival and growth of<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhizoctonia solani</Emphasis>

This work was undertaken to determine the effects ofTrichoderma spp. combined with label and sublabel rates of metam sodium on survival ofRhizoctonia solani in soil. Soils were infested with wheat bran preparations ofTrichoderma hamatum Tri-4,T. harzianum Th-58,T. virens Gl-3, andT. viride Ts-1-R3. Soil was also infested with sterile beet seeds that were colonized withR. solani. Beet seeds were later recovered, plated onto water agar plus antibiotics, and the growth ofR. solani was recorded. Preliminary experiments showed thatT. hamatum andT. virens reduced survival and saprophytic activity ofR. solani when the biocontrol fungi were incorporated into soil at 1.5% (w:w) or greater. Based on these data, biocontrol fungi in subsequent experiments were incorporated into soil at 2%. Metam sodium at label rate killed all biocontrol fungi andR. solani. At 1:2 and 1:5 dilutions, metam sodium reduced survival ofR. solani and allTrichoderma spp. When biocontrol fungi plus the label rate of metam sodium and 1:5, 1:10, 1:50 or 1:100 dilutions of the label rate were tested together, there were no interactions between any biocontrol agent and the fumigant with respect to colony diameter, reflecting that allTrichoderma isolates tested reacted similarly to increasing concentrations of metam sodium. At the label rate of metam sodium, allTrichoderma spp. significantly reduced colony diameter, but not growth rate, ofR. solani from beet seed. For the levels of metam sodium tested in combination withTrichoderma, it does not appear feasible to use a reduced rate of metam sodium to controlR. solani. However, the combination ofTrichoderma with metam sodium does reduce growth ofR. solani in comparison with that provided by metam sodium at the label rate. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting Feb. 11, 2004.     

Suppression of Rhizoctonia root-rot of tomato by Glomus mossae BEG12 and Pseudomonas fluorescens A6RI is associated with their effect on the pathogen growth and on the root morphogenesis

Rhizoctonia solani root-rot is a major soilborne disease causing growth and yield depression. The ability of Glomus mosseae BEG12 and Pseudomonas fluorescens A6RI to suppress this soilborne disease in tomato was assessed by comparing the shoot and root growth of plants infested with R. solani 1556 when protected or not by these beneficial strains. The epiphytic and parasitic growth of the pathogenic R. solani 1556 was compared in the presence and absence of the biocontrol agents by microscopical observations allowing the quantification of roots with hyphae appressed to epidermal cells (epiphytic growth) and of roots with intraradical infection (parasitic growth). The root architecture of the tomato plants under the different experimental conditions was further characterized by measuring total root length, mean root diameter, number of root tips and by calculating degree of root branching. G. mosseae BEG12 and P. fluorescens A6RI fully overcame the growth depression caused by R. solani 1556. This disease suppression was associated with a significant decrease of the epiphytic and parasitic growth of the pathogen together with an increase of root length and of the number of root tips of inoculated tomato plants. The combined effects of G. mosseae BEG12 and P. fluorescens A6RI on pathogen growth and on root morphogenesis are suggested to be involved in the efficient disease suppression.     

Effect of botanicals on the population dynamics ofNephotettix virescens, rice tungro disease incidence and yield of rice

Leaf extracts ofVitex negundo L,Synadenium grantii Hook. f. andProsopis juliflora (SW) DC, and cake ofAzadirachta indica A. Juss. were evaluated for their efficacy in reducing the population of the green leafhopper,Nephotettix virescens (Distant), and its transmission of rice tungro virus under field conditions. All four plant species tested reduced the population of the vector significantly in both the nursery and main field. The lowest population of the vector was recorded with application of neem cake at 5 kg/0.032 ha of nursery, followed by foliar spray of neem seed kernel extract at 5% in the main field. Rice tungro disease incidence was also less in this treatment, with maximum grain yield of 3580 kg/ha in ‘Kharif’ (July-Oct.) and 3257 kg/ha in ‘Rabi’ (Nov.-March) seasons, and a cost:benefit ratio of 1:3.9 in both seasons. However, the maximum cost:benefit ratio of 1:5.6 and 1:5.8 in Kharif and Rabi seasons, respectively, was recorded withV. negundo.     

Effect of bactericides, phosphonates and nutrient amendments on blast of dormant flower buds of pear: a field evaluation for disease control

Blast of dormant flower buds (BDFB) of pear is a disease of economic importance in the major pear production areas of Europe. To obtain information concerning control measures and disease origin, chemical control trials were performed which included bactericides (kasugamycin and copper), phosphonates (fosetyl–Al and ethephon), and nutrient amendments (boron, calcium, and microelements). Although Cu levels in bactericidal treatments and microelements in nutrient amendments increased significantly in trees, there was no significant effect on disease control. However, incidence of disease was reduced significantly with phosphonate derivative compounds, and effects were observed only the year after the treatment was performed. Additional field trials were done to determine optimum dose and application timing, and a schedule consisting of three spray applications of fosetyl–Al (240 g a.i. hl^-1) during May and June was the most effective treatment. This schedule was evaluated in 31 field trials performed in commercial orchard plots from 1989 through 1998. In the year after the treatment, average disease incidence decreased in 30 of 31 trials. The decrease of disease incidence was significant in 71% of the trials (average decrease of 46%). Neither the presence nor the population levels of P. syringae were consistently related to disease levels nor to the fosetyl–Al treatment effects on blast incidence of dormant flower buds.     

Effect of six sanitation treatments on leaf litter density, ascospore production of Venturia inaequalis and scab incidence in integrated and organic apple orchards

A two-year study was conducted to determine the effect of six sanitation treatments on leaf litter density (LLD), relative ascospore production of Venturia inaequalis and scab incidence on spur-leaf clusters, leaves and harvested fruits, on two cultivars with low and high scab susceptibilities, in Hungarian integrated and organic apple orchards. The following sanitation treatments were used: sprays of lime sulphur in autumn, collecting fallen leaves in autumn, straw mulch cover in late winter, sprays of lime sulphur followed by mulch cover, collecting fallen leaves followed by mulch cover, collecting fallen leaves followed by covering the orchard floor with plastic foil, and non-sanitized control. LLD decreased continuously in all treatment plots by 0–23% by mid-May in both orchards and years; however, LLD reduction was 1.4–4.2 times higher in the organic orchard compared to the integrated one. All treatments, except for the lime sulphur treatment, resulted in significant (P < 0.05) reduction of LLD and ascospore production in both the integrated and organic apple orchards compared to non-sanitized plots. The most efficient treatment was leaf collection combined with plastic foil cover, followed by leaf collection combined with mulch cover, leaf collection alone, mulch cover alone, and lime sulphur spray combined with mulch cover, with a reduction in the ascospore production of >95, 72–92, 56–79, 24–38, and 27–46%, respectively, in the mean of both orchards and years. However, only treatments of leaf collection applied alone, or in combination with mulch or with plastic foil cover reduced significantly (P < 0.05) leaf and/or fruit scab incidence by 18–57% compared to non-sanitized plots. These three leaf collection treatments are recommended in both integrated and organic orchards and the possibilities of successfully incorporating these methods into orchard management practices are interpreted.     

Effect of azadirachtin applied systemically through roots of plants on the mortality,development and fecundity of the cabbage aphid (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Brevicoryne brassicae</Emphasis>)

The effect of low concentrations of azadirachtin applied systemically through root tissues of rape plants (Brassica napus subsp.napus) on the mortality, period of development, longevity and fecundity of the cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae L.) (Sternorrhyncha: Aphididae) was studied. The concentrations of azadirachtin A tested were: 0.25, 0.05, 0.005, 0.0005 and 0.00005 mg ml⁻¹. The mortality of cabbage aphid nymphs, particularly during the period of ecdysis, increased significantly with increasing concentrations. Azadirachtin had no effect on the length of the development period of the respective immature stages of cabbage aphids. The average longevity of the cabbage aphids decreased with increasing azadirachtin concentration and time spent feeding. The fecundity of aphids decreased after the application of azadirachtin. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting May 6, 2004.