What does IUCN species action planning contribute to the conservation process?

More than 60 Species Action Plans have been published by the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of IUCN—The World Conservation Union. They are designed to assess the status of threatened species and their habitats, and provide prioritised recommendations for action, but there is debate about the effectiveness of such plans in stimulating conservation action and research. We evaluated three Action Plans covering a group of large terrestrial birds, published in 1995. Of 54 projects suggested in these plans, 33 had been initiated in the 5 years since publication, and 35 specific conservation actions were undertaken. Forty-five peer-reviewed papers were published, and at least 88 other outputs in the form of symposium presentations, posters and popular articles were produced. Although it is impossible to demonstrate the effectiveness of species action planning through rigorous scientific assessment, these results indicate a substantial amount of conservation-relevant activity directly attributable to the process. They also highlight the need for a clear definition of the role of Action Plans. We suggest that many of the criticisms directed toward species action plans result from an over-optimistic view of their power to catalyse action, and conclude by presenting a new model describing their niche within the wider context of conservation biology and policy.     

Policy councils on food, nutrition and physical activity: the UK as a case study

International experience of Policy Councils on food and nutrition has developed over recent decades but they have not received the attention that is due to them. The 1992 International Conference on Nutrition recommended that governments create Food Policy Councils but few have been created. There has been more experience in local and sub-national policy councils, particularly in North America. Developing country experience of attempting to improve food policy integration stems from the 1970s. The UK's House of Commons' (Parliamentary) Health Committee, in its 2004 report on obesity, reviewed current policy determinants of the rise in obesity, concluding that national food and health policy lacked coherence, integration and effectiveness. To address this vacuum, it proposed the creation of a new 'Council of Nutrition and Physical Activity to improve co-ordination and inject independent thinking into strategy'. The case for creating such a Council in the UK is reviewed, as are possible organisational options, functions and remit. A Council could be created under the forthcoming Public Health Act. The purpose of the new Council would be to provide independent advice and strategic advice as well as monitor the linkages between policies on food, nutrition and physical activity, noting their environmental implications.     

Protection, promotion and support of breast-feeding in Europe: current situation

OBJECTIVE: To describe the current situation regarding protection, promotion and support of breast-feeding in Europe, as a first step towards the development of a blueprint for action. DESIGN AND SETTING: A questionnaire was completed by 29 key informants and 128 other informants in the EU, including member states, accession and candidate countries. RESULTS: EU countries do not fully comply with the policies and recommendations of the Global Strategy on Infant and Young Child Feeding that they endorsed during the 55th World Health Assembly in 2002. Some countries do not even comply with the targets of the Innocenti Declaration (1990). Pre-service training on breast-feeding practice is inadequate and in-service training achieves only low to medium coverage. The Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative is well developed only in three countries; in 19 countries, less than 15% of births occur in baby-friendly hospitals. The International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes, endorsed in 1981 by all countries, is not fully applied and submitted to independent monitoring. The legislation for working mothers meets on average the International Labour Organization standards, but covers only women with full formal employment. Voluntary mother-to-mother support groups and trained peer counsellors are present in 27 and 13 countries, respectively. Breast-feeding rates span over a wide range; comparisons are difficult due to use of non-standard methods. The rate of exclusive breast-feeding at 6 months is low everywhere, even in countries with high initiation rates. CONCLUSIONS: EU countries need to revise their policies and practices to meet the principles inscribed in the Global Strategy on Infant and Young Child Feeding in order to better protect, promote and support breast-feeding.     

Why the Bush administration and the global sugar industry are determined to demolish the 2004 WHO global strategy on diet, physical activity and health

OBJECTIVE: To indicate why the world's most powerful nation state and one powerful sector of the food and drink production and manufacturing industry are determined to demolish the 2004 WHO (World Health Organization) global strategy on diet, physical activity and health, and to disassociate it from the 2003 WHO/FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) expert report on diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases, which with its background papers is the immediate scientific basis for the strategy. To encourage representatives of nation states at the 2004 WHO World Health Assembly to support the strategy together with the report, so that the strategy is explicit and quantified, and responds to the need expressed by member states at the 2002 World Health Assembly. This is for an effective global strategy to prevent and control chronic diseases whose prevalence is increased by nutrient-poor food low in vegetables and fruits and high in energy-dense fatty, sugary and/or salty foods and drinks and also by physical inactivity. Of these diseases, obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and cancers of several sites are now the chief causes of morbidity and mortality in most countries in the world. METHOD: A summary of the global strategy and its roots in scientific knowledge accumulated over the last half-century. Reasons why the global strategy and the expert report are opposed by the current US government and the world sugar industry, with some reference to modern historical context. A summary of the trajectory of the global strategy since its first draft made in early 2003, and a further summary of its weaknesses, strengths and potential. CONCLUSION: The 2004 WHO global strategy and the 2003 WHO/FAO expert report are perceived by the current US administration as an impediment to US trade and international policy, within a general context of current US government hostility to the UN (United Nations) system as a brake on the exercise of its power as the world's dominant nation. Policy-makers throughout the world should be aware of the contexts of current pressures put on them by powerful nation states and sectors of industry whose ideologies and commercial interests are challenged by international initiatives designed to improve public health and to leave a better legacy for future generations.     

A description of the standardized measurement procedures and recommended threshold limit values for biological hazards in Germany

On the basis of EU directives 89/391/EEC (to encourage improvements in the safety and health of workers at work) and 2000/54/EC (on the protection of workers from risks related to exposure to biological agents at work), biological hazards at work have to be assessed and preventive measures have to be introduced in all member states of the EU. In Germany, national legislation (Biological Agents Ordinance - BioStoffV and Technical Rules on Biological Agents, TRBA) and recommendations of workers' compensation boards define standardized methods for the assessment of airborne mold, bacteria, and endotoxins. This article describes policies and practices in Germany for measurement of airborne bioaerosols and for interpretation of measurements relative to the standards. As an example, methods and results of measurements in agriculture are shown. The standardized measurement procedures proved suitable for use in livestock buildings. The results of the exploratory measurements in different livestock buildings confirmed the often high concentrations of airborne biological hazards in agriculture that are reported in the literature.     

Expression of interest: Integrated project HEAT food

Exposure routes of chemical compounds from soil into plants need to be known to assess the risk of food contamination. Each EU member state so far uses or develops own assessment methods. This is inefficient and may lead to non-optimal solutions. An expression of interest was sent to the EC, proposing an initiative within the 6th EU framework programme, which aims at harmonizing the assessment methods for the transfer of chemicals into food. Existing and new methods shall be evaluated and compared in close accordance with the administrative needs. Gaps of knowledge will be identified and filled. An assessment tool (multilingual) for the EU member states based on the best available knowledge will be implemented and made available.     

Regulatory Aspects for Whole Grain and Whole Grain Food: An EU Perspective

Whole grain and whole grain foods enjoy recommendation as part of many national and international dietary guidelines. However, if the food industry makes claims for the health benefits of whole grain foods, then a raft of regulatory requirements must be met in the European Union (EU). Under the relatively recent EU Regulation on nutrition and health claims made on foods, any nutrition claims about the energy, nutrients, fiber, or other beneficial substances the food contains need to comply with the Annex of that Regulation. As far as health claims are concerned, until the Community list of approved so‐called Article 13 claims is published, food businesses may use any health claims that can be validated by scientific evidence, providing that they meet any specific requirements of the Regulation that are applicable prior to that date and providing they are not 1) prohibited claims or 2) claims referring to a reduction in the risk of disease or a disease risk factor or 3) referring to children's development and health or 4) claims that have been rejected by the EU regulatory procedure. Claims under 2) or 3) require submission of a dossier. Once the Community list of health Article 13 claims is published, then only those claims included in the list or those claims approved following submission of a dossier to the European Food Safety Authority may be used. Whole grain foods making nutrition and health claims will also ultimately have to respect the nutrient profiles that will be established under Article 4 of the Regulation. Various definitions of what counts as a whole grain food have been proposed but none has regulatory standing in EU. The conditions of use that will be documented as part of the EU‐approved list of health claims may in essence establish a definition.     

Challenges in translating scientific evidence into mandatory food fortification policy: an antipodean case study of the folate-neural tube defect relationship

OBJECTIVE: To identify challenges in translating scientific evidence of a nutrient and health relationship into mandatory food fortification policy. DESIGN: A case study approach was used in which available evidence associated with the folate-neural tube defect relationship was reviewed against the Australia New Zealand Food Regulation Ministerial Council's Policy Guideline for mandatory food fortification. RESULTS: Three particular challenges were identified. The first is knowing when and how to act in the face of scientific uncertainty. The second is knowing how to address the special needs of at-risk individuals without compromising the health and safety of the population as a whole. The third is to ensure that a policy is sufficiently monitored and evaluated. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the availability of compelling evidence of a relationship between a particular nutrient and a health outcome, a definitive policy response may not be apparent. Judgement and interpretation inevitably play significant roles in influencing whether and how authorities translate scientific evidence into mandatory food fortification policy. In relation to the case study, it would be prudent to undertake a risk-benefit analysis of policy alternatives and to implement nutrition education activities to promote folic acid supplement use among the target group. Should mandatory folate fortification be implemented, comprehensive monitoring and evaluation of this policy will be essential to know that it is implemented as planned and does more good than harm. In relation to mandatory food fortification policy-making around the world, ongoing national nutrition surveys are required to complement national policy guidelines.     

Delivery of nutrition services in health systems in sub-Saharan Africa: opportunities in Burkina Faso, Mozambique and Niger

BACKGROUND: In sub-Saharan Africa, underweight and micronutrient deficiencies account for an estimated 25% of the burden of disease. As the coverage of national health systems expands, increased opportunities exist to address the needs of children and women, the most vulnerable to these deficiencies, through high-quality nutrition services. OBJECTIVES: To assess health providers' knowledge and practice with regard to essential nutrition services for women and children in Burkina Faso, Mozambique and Niger, in order to assist the development of a standard guide and tools to assess and monitor the quality of the nutrition services delivered through national health systems. FINDINGS: The three surveys reveal the extent of missed opportunities to deliver nutrition services during routine prenatal, postnatal and child-care consultations for the prevention and treatment of highly prevalent nutritional deficiencies. CONCLUSION: A commitment to improving the quality of facility-based nutrition services is necessary to impact on the health outcomes of women and children 'covered' by national health systems. Rigorous assessment and monitoring of the quality of nutrition services should inform health programme and policy development. Building on the lessons learned in these three assessments, Helen Keller International has developed a standard Guide and Tools to assess the quality of the nutrition services delivered through national health systems. These tools can be adapted to assess ongoing nutrition services in health facilities, provide a framework for nutrition programming, inform the development of pre-service as well as in-service nutrition training curricula for providers, and evaluate the impact of nutrition training on providers' practices.     

"Agriculture at risk: A report to the nation"--a historical review,critical analysis,and implications for future planning

"Agricultural at Risk: A Report to the Nation" is a proceedings document of a three-year (1987-1990) policy development process entitled "Agricultural Occupational and Environmental Health: Policy Strategies for the Future." That process culminated in the emergence of occupational health and safety in agriculture as a public health policy issue in the U.S. Several agricultural health and safety programs evolved as direct or indirect consequences of this process, including, but not limited to, the NIOSH agricultural occupational health programs, The Kellogg Foundation agricultural health grants programs, and the prospective chronic health studies of pesticides (EPA-NlH funded). The Agriculture at Risk report resulted in 86 specific recommendations. The authors of this article reviewed each of these recommendations and rated them on a subjective scale as to their degree of attainment. They found that 44% of the recommendations had received moderate to substantial action. Most of the positive action was in the areas of research and coalition building. A noticeable lack of action was in the areas of standards and regulation, occupational health service delivery, and education categories. This article concludes with an analysis of the limitations of the AAR report, changes in exposed populations over the past decade, and specific recommendations on future actions to address the issues.     

A multipurpose tool to evaluate the nutritional quality of individual foods: Nutrimap

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: With obesity and nutrition-related diseases rising, public health authorities have recently insisted nutritional quality be included when advertising and labelling food. The concept of nutritional quality is, however, difficult to define. In this paper we present an innovative, science-based nutrient profiling system, Nutrimap, which quantifies nutritional assets and weaknesses of foods. METHODS: The position of a food is defined according to its nutritional composition, food category, the consumer's nutritional needs, consumption data and major public health objectives for nutrition. Amounts of each of 15 relevant nutrients (in 100 kcal) are scored according to their ability to 'rebalance' or 'unbalance' the supply in the whole diet, compared with current recommendations and intakes. These scores are weighted differently in different food categories according to the measured relevance of the category to a nutrient's supply. Positive (assets) and negative (weaknesses) scores are totalled separately. RESULTS: Nutrimap provides an overall estimate of the nutritional quality of same-category foods, enabling easy comparisons as exemplified for cereals and fruit/vegetables. Results are consistent with major nutritional recommendations and match classifications provided by other systems. Simulations for breakfasts show that Nutrimap can help design meals of controlled nutritional value. CONCLUSIONS: Combining objective scientific bases with pragmatic concerns, Nutrimap appears to be effective in comparing food items. Decision-makers can set their own limits within the Nutrimap-defined assets and weaknesses of foods and reach categorisations consistent with their objectives--from regulatory purposes to consumer information or support for designing meals (catering) or new products (food industry).     

Parameters causing variation between soil screening values and the effect of harmonization

Background, aim, and scope

This paper discusses the variation between generic soil screening values (SSV) from 17 countries for 11 volatile organic contaminants (VOC). The variation between SSV was one to four orders-of-magnitude (OOM) depending on the SSV and landuse type. What would be the variation if parameter values are harmonized between member states?

Main Features

The effect of harmonization was visualized by firstly reviewing the technical derivation procedure for SSV for 7 SSV from five countries and collecting all parameter values that are involved in the deviation. The parameters were subdivided in scientific (e.g. algorithm plus its parameter values), political (e.g. toxicological reference) or geographical (e.g. building and soil properties) elements. Secondly, new SSV were calculated with progressively harmonized sets of scientific and/or political parameter values, while the geographical parameters varied. Thirdly, the variation between SSV was compared before and after harmonization.

Results

Results show that harmonizing algorithms plus other scientific and political parameters are suited for harmonization. The variation decreases to 1 OOM, after scientific and political parameters were harmonized. Geographical parameters seem to have less impact on the differences between SSV.

Discussion

So, should we harmonize the procedures for deriving SSV between EU member states? The need for discussing harmonization is also raised by the upcoming EU Soil Framework Directive.

Conclusions

Clearly common generic SSV across all of Europe are not appropriate, since countries are allowed to include member state specific geographical and cultural elements and also political decision making. By harmonizing scientific and/or political parameters differences between SSV can be made more transparent between member states and it will encourage convergence in procedures among member states to ensure neutral conditions of competition and a coherent soil protection regime throughout Europe.

Recommendations and perspectives

To promote uniformity it is recommended to construct a toolbox for the calculation of human health risk exposure, carried by a European consensus, that includes different model algorithms for which fixed and flexible input parameters are made available. Fixed algorithm parameters are standardized and applied uniformly by all member states, e.g. physico-chemical parameters, while flexible input parameters permits member states to include region or country specific parameter values and policy decisions.     

Do childhood growth indicators in developing countries cluster? Implications for intervention strategies

OBJECTIVE: The effectiveness of geographic targeting in nutrition programmes depends largely on the degree to which malnutrition clusters within particular areas. This study investigates the extent to which the childhood nutrition indicators, stunting (height-for-age Z-score <-2) and wasting (weight-for-height Z-score <-2), are spatially clustered; this information is used to determine the implications of spatial clustering for the effectiveness of geographic targeting. DESIGN: Analysis of data from Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) results. Clustering is assessed by calculating intra-cluster correlation coefficients (ICCs). Estimating the proportion of malnourished children covered by a programme successfully targeting 10% of clusters with the highest malnutrition prevalences allows an assessment of the effectiveness of geographic targeting. SETTING: Fifty-eight DHS III (1992-1997) and DHS IV (1998-2001) reports from 46 developing countries. SUBJECTS: Pre-school children of mothers interviewed by DHS. MAIN RESULTS: The extent of clustering of nutritional status was surprisingly low (median ICC for national samples: stunting=0.054, wasting=0.032) and most countries were characterised by having an ICC <0.1--i.e. low clustering--for childhood undernutrition (91% of countries for wasting and 78% for stunting). Our assessment of the effectiveness of geographic targeting showed that coverage was better for wasting than for stunting; for wasting, 23% of countries would achieve less than 20% coverage, compared with 76% of countries achieving less than 20% coverage for stunting. Coverage is dependent on the overall prevalence of malnutrition and the ICC. CONCLUSIONS: Childhood nutritional status is determined at the household, or even individual, level; nutrition programmes that are geographically targeted may result in high levels of under-coverage and leakage, thereby compromising their cost-effectiveness; the lack of clustering questions the appropriateness of current nutrition interventions.     

History of the concept of 'levels of evidence' and their current status in relation to primary prevention through lifestyle interventions

Primary prevention is a major option to reduce the burden of chronic disease in populations. Because lifestyle interventions have proved to be effective, lifestyle recommendations including nutritional advice are made abundantly. However, both their credibility and their effectiveness are often considered not to be high. Therefore, scientific evidence should form the basis of recommendations and, as in clinical medicine, a rational approach should be followed for the evaluation of evidence. In this paper, the development and current concepts of 'levels of evidence' as they are applied in clinical medicine are outlined and their impact on evidence-based recommendations is discussed. Next, the question is raised as to how far the existing schemes are applicable to the evaluation of issues pertaining to primary prevention through lifestyle changes. Current schemes were developed mainly for clinical research questions and therefore place major emphasis on randomised controlled trials as the main and most convincing evidence in the evaluation process. These types of study are rarely available for lifestyle-related factors and might even not be feasible to obtain. Arguments are advanced to support the notion that a modification of currently existing 'levels of evidence' as developed for clinical research questions might be necessary. Thereby, one might be able to accommodate the specific aspects of evidence-related issues of recommendations for primary prevention through lifestyle changes, like dietary changes.     

The changing structure of diets in the European Union in relation to healthy eating guidelines

OBJECTIVE: Our objective in this paper is to assess diets in the European Union (EU) in relation to the recommendations of the recent World Health Organization/Food and Agriculture Organization expert consultation and to show how diets have changed between 1961 and 2001. DATA AND METHODS: Computations make use of FAOSTAT data on food availability at country level linked to a food composition database to convert foods to nutrients. We further explore the growing similarity of diets in the EU by making use of a consumption similarity index. The index provides a single number measure of dietary overlap between countries. RESULTS: The data confirm the excessive consumption by almost all countries of saturated fats, cholesterol and sugars, and the convergence of nutrient intakes across the EU. Whereas in 1961 diets in several European countries were more similar to US diets than to those of other European countries, this is no longer the case; moreover, while EU diets have become more homogeneous, the EU as a whole and the USA have become less similar over time. CONCLUSIONS: Although the dominant cause of greater similarity in EU diets over the period studied is increased intakes in Mediterranean countries of saturated fats, cholesterol and sugar, also important are reductions in saturated fat and sugar in some Northern European countries. This suggests that healthy eating messages are finally having an impact on diets; a distinctly European diet may also be emerging.     

Food and nutrient availability in New Zealand: an analysis of supermarket sales data

OBJECTIVE: To examine food and nutrient availability in New Zealand using supermarket sales data in conjunction with a brand-specific supermarket food composition database (SFD). DESIGN: The SFD was developed by selecting the top-selling supermarket food products and linking them to food composition data from a variety of sources, before merging with individualised sales data. Supermarket food and nutrient data were then compared with data from national nutrition and household budget/economic surveys. SETTING: A supermarket in Wellington, New Zealand. SUBJECTS: Eight hundred and eighty-two customers (73% female; mean age 38 years) who shopped regularly at the participating supermarket store and for whom electronic sales data were available for the period February 2004-January 2005. RESULTS: Top-selling supermarket food products included full-fat milk, white bread, sugary soft drinks and butter. Key food sources of macronutrients were similar between the supermarket sales database and national nutrition surveys. For example, bread was the major source of energy and contributed 12-13% of energy in all three data sources. Proportional expenditure on fruit, vegetables, meat, poultry, fish, farm products and oils, and cereal products recorded in the Household Economic Survey and supermarket sales data were within 2% of each other. CONCLUSIONS: Electronic supermarket sales data can be used to evaluate a number of important aspects of food and nutrient availability. Many of our findings were broadly comparable with national nutrition and food expenditure survey data, and supermarket sales have the advantage of being an objective, convenient, up-to-date and cost-effective measure of household food purchases.     

Remediation technology and risk assessment

Exposure routes of chemical compounds from soil into plants need to be known to assess the risk of food contamination. Each EU member state so far uses or develops own assessment methods. This is inefficient and may lead to non-optimal solutions. An expression of interest was sent to the EC, proposing an initiative within the 6th EU framework programme, which aims at harmonizing the assessment methods for the transfer of chemicals into food. Existing and new methods shall be evaluated and compared in close accordance with the administrative needs. Gaps of knowledge will be identified and filled. An assessment tool (multilingual) for the EU member states based on the best available knowledge will be implemented and made available. Theobjectives of our integrated project concern the following issues: to compare the existing (and new) approaches for the transfer of chemicals from soil into food, to select appropriate methods, to identify gaps of knowledge, and to come to a harmonized approach. Plant uptake for risk assessment of polluted soils is only part of the risk; therefore, this initiative is connected with larger initiatives. These are, among others, the planned ‘European Network of Excellence inBiological Management of EnvironmentalPollution (BIOPOL)’, and ‘Risk Management of Human Exposure to Chemicals (MANAG EXPOSURE)’, another European Network. We would like to contribute our expertise in plant uptake and food chain estimation.     

Workforce development in South Africa with a focus on public health nutrition

OBJECTIVES: The present paper aims to review and report on the current and predicted future public health nutrition workforce in South Africa. Additionally, it examines ways in which the Department of Health (DOH) is striving to meet the increasing burden of nutrition-related diseases in South Africa. METHODS: The primary sources of data used for the review were reports from the Census office, South African health reviews, mortality and morbidity statistics, and documents from the Health Professions Council of South Africa. RESULTS: There are fewer than 2000 registered dietitians in South Africa and fewer than 600 of them work in the public health sector. Furthermore, professional nurses - who are the backbone of the primary health-care system and deliver the rudiments of basic nutritional care - are not being trained in sufficient numbers to meet population growth; in 2004 there was only one nurse per 4000 persons. This situation is aggravated by the growing burden of conditions associated with both overnutrition and undernutrition, as well as the enormous demands of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. The DOH is striving to meet these increasing needs by means of the Integrated Nutrition Programme as well as a National Human Resources Plan which includes numerous strategies to improve the quantity and quality of health professionals' training, including dietitians and nutritionists. This plan includes the objective of increasing the public health nutrition workforce to more than 250 newly trained dietitians and nutritionists per annum by 2010.     

Tea or coffee? A case study on evidence for dietary advice

The present paper explores the level of evidence required to justify giving dietary advice to the public. There are important practical differences between the development of public health nutrition guidelines and guidelines for clinical practice. While the gold standard for evidence for clinical practice guidelines is a meta-analysis of a number of randomised controlled trials, this is often unrealistic and sometimes unethical for the evaluation of public health nutrition interventions. Hence, epidemiological studies make up the bulk of evidence for nutrition guidelines. Tea and coffee are an interesting case study in relation to this issue. They are two of the most commonly consumed beverages worldwide, yet there is little dietary advice on their use. The evidence for a relationship between coffee or tea consumption and several diseases is discussed. The available studies, predominantly epidemiological, together with animal and in vitro studies, indicate that coffee and tea are both safe beverages. However, tea is the healthier option because it has a possible role in the prevention of several cancers and CVD. While the evidence for such relationships is not strong, the public will continue to drink both tea and coffee, and will continue to ask nutritionists to make recommendations. It is therefore argued that advice should be given on the best available data, as waiting for complete data to become available could have severe consequences for public health.     

A conservation framework for the golden eagle in Scotland: Refining condition targets and assessment of constraint influences

Conservation strategies have three elements: species protection, site protection and, the most challenging component, conservation in the wider environment. Watson and Whitfield [Watson, J., Whitfield, P., 2002. A conservation framework for the golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos in Scotland. Journal of Raptor Research 36(1 Suppl.), 41-49.] proposed a conservation framework for the golden eagle in Scotland whose main innovation, taking a lead from EU conservation Directives, was to incorporate the concept of favourable condition and its maintenance by implementing conservation policies that are regionally targeted at known constraints in the wider environment. Three criteria were suggested to judge favourable condition: a national abundance target of breeding pairs, national and regional targets for breeding productivity, and regional targets for the extent of suitable habitat which is occupied by breeding pairs. Here we refine these criteria, first to take the national abundance target and use it to set regional targets. Distribution targets were implicitly incorporated by this process because abundance targets were set regionally, with regard to the proportion of known territories which should be occupied. This allowed us to dispense with the distribution criterion as originally proposed. Our next refinement was to base regional demographic targets not only on breeding productivity, but also on indirect measures of survival (which are likely to have more influence on population dynamics). Despite apparent overall population stability over the last 20 years, the national golden eagle population failed to meet the abundance target and only 3 of 16 regions where eagles have occupied territories since 1982 were considered to be in favourable condition. The key constraint preventing favourable condition being met was persecution, predominantly in some areas managed for grouse shooting. The advantages of a conservation framework over similar approaches, such as species action plans, are highlighted.