Morphological Changes of Granules of Different Starches by Surface Gelatinization with Calcium Chloride

Native starch granules of 11 selected cultivars (potato, waxy potato, sweet potato, normal maize, high‐amylose maize, waxy maize, wheat, normal barley, high‐amylose barley, waxy barley, and rice) were treated with a calcium chloride solution (4M) for surface gelatinization. The surface‐gelatinized starch granules were investigated using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). In general, those starches with larger granule sizes required longer treatment time to complete the gelatinization. The salt solution treatment of starch was monitored by light microscopy and stopped when the outer layer of the granule was gelatinized. The surface gelatinized starch granules were studied using scanning electron microscopy. On the basis of the gelatinization pattern from calcium chloride treatments, the starches could be divided into three groups: 1) starches with evenly gelatinized granule surface, such as normal potato, waxy potato, sweet potato, maize, and high‐amylose maize; 2) starches with salt gelatinization concentrated on specific sites of the granule (i.e., equatorial groove), such as wheat, barley, and high‐amylose barley; and 3) starches that, after surface gelatinization, can no longer be separated to individual granules for SEM studies, such as waxy barley, waxy maize, and normal rice. The morphology of the surface gelatinized starch resembled that of enzyme‐hydrolyzed starch granules.     

Separation and Characterization of A- and B-Type Starch Granules in Wheat Endosperm

Mature wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) endosperm contains two types of starch granules: large A-type and small B-type. Two methods, microsieving or centrifugal sedimentation through aqueous solutions of sucrose, maltose, or Percoll were used to separate A- and B-type starch granules. Microsieving could not completely separate the two types of starch granules, while centrifuging through maltose and sucrose solutions gave a homogenous population for B-type starch granules only. Centrifuging through two Percoll solutions (70 and 100%, v/v) produced purified populations of both the A- and B-type starch granules. Analysis of starch granule size distribution in the purified A- and B-type granule populations and in the whole-starch granule population obtained directly from wheat endosperm confirmed that the purified A- and B-type starch granule populations represented their counterparts in mature wheat endosperm. Centrifugations through two Percoll solutions were used to purify A- and B-type starch granule populations from six wheat cultivars. The amylose concentrations and gelatinization properties of these populations were analyzed. All of the A-type starch granules contained higher amylose concentrations and had higher gelatinization enthalpies than did B-type starch granules. Although A- and B-type starch granules started to gelatinize at a similar temperature, B-type starch granules had higher gelatinization peak and completion temperatures than did A-type starch granules     

Oil Binding of Heat‐Treated Waxy Wheat Starch Granules and Starch Granule Ghosts Produced with Concentrated KI and I2

Dry waxy wheat starch granules were heat‐treated at 120°C for 5 hr, and then shaken vigorously in a biphasic system of oil and water. Non‐heat‐ treated starch remained in the aqueous phase, whereas the heat‐treated starch granules showed a strong oil‐binding ability that was lost by trypsin treatment. This result showed that the starch granule surface protein changed from hydrophilic to hydrophobic due to the heat treatment. The presence of starch granule surface protein was ascertained by staining with fluorescamine and fluorescence microscopic observation. Heat‐treated waxy wheat starch granules were incubated with a 25% KI/10% I₂ (w/v) solution, which produced “ghosts” (exterior and interior) structures. The exteriors stained red‐brown, whereas the interiors stained black‐brown. Sonication (20 kHz for 255 sec) followed by centrifugation separated the structures, which were then shaken vigorously in an oil and water system. Only the exterior ghosts exhibited a remarkable emulsification property, which disappeared after trypsin treatment. The ghosts from unheated control granules did not show emulsification. The presence of protein in the exterior ghost fraction was further substantiated by fluorescamine treatment. No protein was detectable in the interior fraction with this dye. From these results, we suggest that the ghost fraction of the waxy wheat starch contained the starch granule surface protein that was made hydrophobic by heat treatment. Also, the nature of the induced emulsification property of the exterior fraction (ghosts) and the oil‐binding ability of the heat‐treated waxy wheat starch granules coincided. Both were due to the hydrophobic nature of the same starch granule surface protein, which showed that the ghosts were the swollen form of the outer region of the waxy starch granule.     

Effect of Small and Large Wheat Starch Granules on Thermomechanical Behavior of Starch

The physicochemical properties of small‐ and large‐granule wheat starches were investigated to reveal whether gelatinization properties and rheological behavior differ between size classes of wheat starch. All samples contained 60% water (w/w, wb). The starch granule size and shape were examined by scanning electron microscopy in the separated A‐ and B‐type granule populations and in the whole wheat starch granule population. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and electron spin resonance (ESR) analyses were performed in parallel with rheological measurements using dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) to relate the viscoelastic changes to modifications in dynamic properties of aqueous solutions and structural disorganization of starch. The small (B‐type) granules had slightly higher gelatinization temperature and lower gelatinization enthalpy than did the large (A‐type) granules. Also, B‐type granules had higher enthalpy for the amylose‐lipid complex transition. Moreover, our results suggested that small granules have higher affinity for water at room temperature. It seems that there is a less ordered arrangement of the polysaccharide chains in the smaller granules when compared with the larger ones. These differences in functional properties of small and large granules suggested that the granule size distribution is an important parameter in the baking process.     

Study of Three-Dimensional Structure of Wheat Starch Granules Stained with Remazolbrilliant Blue Dye and Extracted with Aqueous Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate and Mercaptoethanol Solution

Wheat starch granules were obtained from soft wheat flour by acetic acid fractionation (pH 3.5), and the starch was stained by reaction with Remazolbrilliant blue (RBB) dye. RBB-stained starch was extracted with 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and 1% 2-mercaptoethanol (ME) for 14.5 hr at room temperature. This extraction step was repeated five times (extracts 1–5). SDS-ME extracts were subjected to size-exclusion column chromatography, and comparisons of their profiles for specific absorbance at 650 nm (A₆₅₀) and carbohydrates were made. After high molecular weight (HMW) carbohydrates on the starch granule surface were extracted, HMW carbohydrates inside the granule appeared to be extracted. Finally, low molecular weight (LMW) carbohydrates near the granule surface were extracted. Phase-contrast light microscopy of the treated starch granules showed that all granules became transparent. Two different interior structures were observed. Scanning electron microscopy indicated that the granule was split into two parts at the equatorial groove. The interior of the granule showed two different areas: a central hole area and the surrounding stratified area. Extraction beyond five times with the same solvent dissolved the weak part of the granule structure and left two types of skeletal structures. The appearance of the skeletal structure of the granule surface was different from the appearance of interior structures.     

优质小麦子粒淀粉组成与糊化特性对氮素水平的响应

在大田条件下,选用3个不同类型优质小麦品种: 豫麦47（强筋品种）、山农8355（中筋品种）和豫麦50（弱筋品种）,设置3个氮肥水平: 施N 0、15和30 g/m2,研究了小麦子粒淀粉的粒度分布、直支链淀粉组成、糊化特性及其对氮素水平的响应。结果表明,优质小麦子粒中淀粉粒的粒径分布范围为1～45 μm,其数目分布呈单峰或双峰曲线变化,体积和表面积分布均呈双峰曲线变化,峰谷位于10 μm处; 据此可将淀粉粒分为两种类型: A型大淀粉粒（10～45 μm）和B型小淀粉粒（1～10 μm）。优质小麦子粒淀粉粒组成存在显著的基因型差异。强筋品种豫麦47子粒中B型淀粉粒的比例较高,弱筋品种豫麦50子粒中A型淀粉粒的比例较高,中筋品种山农8355居中。施氮水平对优质小麦子粒中淀粉的粒度分布存在显著影响。在本试验条件下,随氮素水平的提高,强筋品种豫麦47子粒中A型淀粉粒的比例提高,而B型淀粉粒的比例下降; 增施氮肥后弱筋品种豫麦50和中筋品种山农8355子粒中B型淀粉粒的比例增大,而A型淀粉粒的比例降低,且前者变化的幅度较大。适量增施氮肥提高优质小麦子粒中的淀粉含量,氮肥用量进一步增大后,淀粉含量降低; 增施氮肥后优质小麦子粒中直链淀粉含量降低。增施氮肥对优质小麦子粒淀粉的糊化特性存在较大影响,且此影响的趋势因基因型和施氮量而异。其中强筋品种豫麦47表现为低谷粘度、最终粘度、反弹值、糊化温度和峰值时间提高,而高峰粘度和稀懈值降低; 当氮肥用量增大至30 g/m2时,糊化温度和峰值时间降低,而以粘度为单位的参数均提高。弱筋品种豫麦50表现为增施氮肥后,RVA参数呈下降趋势,与之相对应中筋品种山农8355的呈上升趋势。相关性分析表明,B型淀粉粒的数目、体积和表面积比例与高峰粘度和稀懈值存在显著正相关; 与低谷粘度、最终粘度和反弹值存在显著负相关。子粒中直链淀粉含量、支链淀粉含量和总淀粉含量与高峰粘度和稀懈值呈显著负相关,与低谷粘度、最终粘度、反弹值和峰值时间呈一定程度正相关; 直链淀粉相对含量与RVA特征参数之间的相关趋势与子粒中直链淀粉含量的趋势一致,但均未达显著水平。由此可以认为,氮肥通过调控小麦子粒中淀粉的直、支链组成和粒度分布而影响其糊化特性。     

Location of Sites of Reaction Within Starch Granules

To observe granular reaction patterns within modified starch granules, starch derivatives were converted to thallium(I) salts and viewed by scanning electron microscopy compositional backscattered electron imaging. Observation of phosphorylated potato and sorghum starches and a hydroxypropyl analog of waxy maize starch revealed that granular patterns of reaction were influenced by both starch and reagent types. In waxy maize and sorghum starches, flow of reagent into the granule matrix occurred from channels (laterally) and cavities (from the inside outward). In potato starch granules, which do not possess channels, reagent diffused inward through exterior granule surfaces. Phosphoryl chloride (highly reactive) reacted to a large extent at granule surfaces, while the propylene oxide analog (less reactive) appeared to diffuse into the granule matrix prior to reacting.     

秸秆生物质炭吸附溶液中Cu2+ 的影响因素研究

生物质炭在吸附土壤中重金属和有机污染物方面发挥着重要作用,然而关于生物质炭吸附重金属的影响因素研究较少。以小麦和玉米秸秆为原料制备生物质炭,分析了生物质炭和溶液性质对水溶液中Cu2+吸附的影响。结果表明生物质炭可有效吸附Cu2+,且不易解吸。Cu2+吸附量随pH和Cu2+初始浓度的升高而增加;高温炭对Cu2+的吸附随离子强度增强而增大;柠檬酸抑制低温炭对Cu2+的吸附,而腐植酸促进Cu2+吸附;生物质炭灰分对Cu2+吸附无显著影响。     

Granule Size Distribution and Chemical Composition of Starches from 12 Soft Wheat Cultivars

Granule size distribution of wheat starch is an important characteristic that can influence its chemical composition, which in turn may affect its functionality. The granule size distribution and chemical composition of soft wheat starches were characterized and compared and relationships among those properties were identified. Thirty-four starch samples from 12 soft wheat cultivars grown in the eastern half of the United States were examined. Granule size distribution was characterized using a laser light-scattering technique. Amylose and phospholipid contents were determined using colorimetric procedures. A clear trimodal distribution of granule sizes was shown by 26 out of 34 starch samples: small granules with diameters <2.8 μm, midsize granules with diameters of 2.8–9.9 μm, and large granules with diameters >9.9 μm. Volume% distribution of granules within the three size classes had ranges of 9.7–15.2% (small), 13.4–27.9% (medium), and 57.9–76.9% (large). Highly significant differences were seen among the cultivars for volume% of granules within the ranges of 9.9–18.5 μm and 18.5–42.8 μm. Cultivar specific surface area means also differed. The environment affected granule size distribution, with some cultivars exhibiting more variation than others. Pioneer 2555 was the least variable, whereas Pioneer 2550 and Geneva were the most variable cultivars. Mean total amylose (TAM), apparent amylose (AAM), and lysophospholipid (LPL) values varied significantly among cultivars. TAM was positively correlated with the volume% of granules of 9.9–18.5 μm. LPL was negatively correlated with mean starch granule diameter and positively correlated with specific surface area of granules, indicating smaller granules tended to have higher lipid contents. Results suggest that significant differences exist in granule size distribution of soft wheat starches and affect starch chemical composition. Data also suggest it is possible that lipid is preferentially associated with the biosynthesis of small starch granules.     

Efficient Purification of Heavy-Metal-Contaminated Water by Microalgae-Activated Pine Bark

Batch experiments were performed to study metal sorption by pine bark and algae-treated bark. The biosorption of copper (Cu), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), and nickel (Ni) in synthetic multimetal aqueous solutions was studied as a function of metal content in solution, and amount and size of bark particles used for sorption. Influence of water hardness (Ca²⁺ only was tested) on the metal sorption process was also evaluated. Metal uptake from solutions with high heavy metal content (i.e. 10× the limit for leachate from landfills) was found to be independent of Ca²⁺ concentration. At low metal content in solution (i.e. 1× the limit for leachate from landfills), uptake of Cu, Zn, Ni, and Cd decreased with increasing Ca²⁺ content in water. Microalgae-treated bark was found to increase the metal sorption efficiency. Air-drying of bark-entrapped algae was shown to be the best method for sorbent drying. In general, the green algae, Chlorella sp. and Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata showed the best results in metal uptake. Sorption of Co, Zn, Ni, and Cd from solution with high levels of both heavy metals and calcium increased by almost 50% with algae treatment of bark was applied. At low levels of metals and calcium content, 100% uptake of Cu and Pb in water was observed. Uptake of other metals from solution with low metal and Ca content was relatively high (50–60%). Low pH (pH 3.0) had no influence on metal sorption from solutions with high metal content. For solutions with low metal content a decrease of metal uptake by 10–15% was observed for all the metals but Pb. Thus, the treatment of bark with microalgae was successful and influenced positively the uptake capacity of the bark.     

Restriction of Starch Granule Swelling by Iodine During Heating

Differences in the degree of starch granule swelling and granule morphology are shown as a function of iodine concentration during heating. The observations reveal a restriction and delay in wheat and corn starch swelling in presence of iodine (0.02%) and a lack of swelling at higher iodine concentration (0.2%). The presence of iodine during heating did not influence waxy corn starch granule swelling, even at the higher concentration. A delay in the increase in paste viscosity during heating was observed, and gel formation was precluded after cooling at the higher iodine concentration. Waxy corn starch pastes formed a weak gel even at the higher iodine concentration. Spectrophotometric analyses showed that polymers leach into the solution when heated in the presence of 0.02% iodine, while no leaching was observed at 0.2% iodine concentration. Furthermore, the length and the amount of polymers leaching from normal corn were different from that observed for wheat starch. Thermal analyses reveal a shift in the onset of gelatinization temperature and an increase in the enthalpy in the amylose‐lipid region of the endotherm. While the iodine‐polymer complex did not appear to exhibit an endotherm during heating, the granules exhibited a diffused polarized cross, suggesting the presence of an ordered complex.     

Composition and Reactivity of A‐ and B‐type Starch Granules of Normal,Partial Waxy,and Waxy Wheat

Wheat has great potential to make inroads into starch markets with the advent of partial waxy and waxy starches of diverse composition and properties. The majority of isolated starch utilized in food applications is chemically modified to improve starch properties according to the intended use. Therefore, it is critical to understand factors that affect wheat starch reactivity. This work investigated the relative reactivities of normal, partial waxy, and waxy wheat starches and their respective A‐ and B‐type starch granule fractions. Native starch isolated from four closely related soft wheat lines (normal, partial waxy, and full waxy) was modified through 1) substitution (propylene oxide analog) and 2) cross‐linking (phosphorus oxychloride) reactions to generate both types of modified starch products for each wheat line. Characterization of the unmodified starch fractions confirmed compositional differences among the cultivars and their respective granule types. In cross‐linking reactions, B‐type granules were slightly more reacted than A‐type granules for all cultivars, while the waxy starch generally exhibited higher reactivity compared with normal and partial waxy starches. For the substituted starches, no differences in reactivity were observed among the cultivars or between the two granule types.     

Effects of copper source and concentration on in vitro phytate phosphorus hydrolysis by phytase

Five copper (Cu) sources were studied at pH 2.5, 5.5, and 6.5 to determine how Cu affects phytate phosphorus (PP) hydrolysis by phytase at concentrations up to 500 mg/kg diet (60 min, 40-41 degrees C). Subsequently, Cu solubility with and without sodium phytate was measured. Adding Cu inhibited PP hydrolysis at pH 5.5 and pH 6.5 (P < 0.05). This inhibition was greater with higher concentrations of Cu. Tri-basic copper chloride and copper lysinate inhibited PP hydrolysis much less than copper sulfate pentahydrate, copper chloride, and copper citrate (P < 0.05). A strong negative relationship was observed between PP hydrolysis and soluble Cu at pH 5.5 (r = -0.76, P < 0.0001) and 6.5 (r = -0.54, P < 0.0001). In conclusion, pH, Cu concentration, and source influenced PP hydrolysis by phytase in vitro and were related to the amount of soluble Cu and the formation of insoluble copper-phytin complexes.     

Sorption of cupric,dichromate and arsenate ions in some New Zealand soilds

Concentrated solutions of copper (Cu²⁺), dichromate (Cr₂O^2? ₇) and aresenate (AsO₄ ^3?) ions (CCA solutions) are used extensively in the New Zealand timber preservation industry. These ions are therefore, potential soil pollutants at timber treatment sites. Sorption of these three ions was examined by the surface and sub-surface horizons of two free-draining New Zealand soils over a range of soil solution pH values. Copper sorption by both soils increased substantially with increasing pH and was greater in the surface compared with the sub-surface horizons. Less dichromate was sorbed than the other two ions and wa similar in both surface and sub-surface horizons for each soil. Dichromate sorption increased with decreasing pH. Arsenate sorption from solutions containing all three ions was not greatly different to influenced by changes in soil solution pH. Arsenate sorption was generally greater in the sub-surface horizons of both soils. Sorption from solutions containing all three ions was not greatly different to sorption from solutions containing the single metal ions. Sorption behaviour for each ion is related to its chemistry and the soil chemical properties of each horizon. Results suggest that in the event of soil contamination by CCA solution, the immediate leaching potential of the initial ions species present would increase in the following order: Cu²⁺ < HAsI ₄ ^? ? Cr₂O ₇ ^2? .     

Measurement of Wheat Starch Granule Size Distribution Using Image Analysis and Laser Diffraction Technology

Starch was isolated from flour of four wheats representing hard red winter (Karl), hard red spring (Gunner), durum (Belfield 3), and spelt (WK 86035‐8) wheat classes. Digital image analysis (IA) coupled with light microscopy was used to determine starch size distributions where the volume of granules was calculated as spherical particles or oblate spheroids. Starch granules were classified into three size ranges: A‐type granules (> 15 μm), B‐type granules (5–15 μm), and C‐type granules (<5 μm). An error was noted in using digital image analysis because the perimeter of some granules touch the edge (PTE) of the field being analyzed. To correct for this error, the PTE granules were manually replaced into the field by measuring their diameters and entering them into the database. The results showed differences in the starch size distributions between the classes of wheat evaluated, as well as the method of analysis. Four laser diffraction sizing (LDS) instruments were used to measure granule distributions of the four classes of wheat. LDS compared with IA resulted in a ≈40% underestimation of the A‐type granule diameter and a ≈50% underestimation of the B‐type granule diameter. A correction factor (adjustment) was developed from IA data to correct LDS analysis. LDS data correlations before adjustments to IA data were R² = 0.02^ns to 0.55***. After adjustment, these correlations improved to R² = 0.81*** to 0.93*** depending on the class of wheat starch evaluated.     

In Vitro Binding of Puroindolines to Wheat Starch Granules

Puroindoline (pin) preparations made from flours of hard and soft wheats contained a mixture of pin‐a, 0.19/0.53 α‐amylase inhibitor, and purothionins. Starch granule preparations from the same cultivars were treated with proteinase to remove surface proteins and incubated with solutions of the pin preparations. Binding of pin‐a and purothionins but not the 0.19/0.53 inhibitor was observed with no apparent differences between the behavior of the pin preparations or starch granule preparations from hard or soft types. No binding was observed when several other proteins (bovine serum albumin, total albumins, a commercial preparation of wheat α‐amylase inhibitors, and barley β‐amylase) were incubated with the starch granules under the same conditions, indicating that in vitro binding can be used to study specific starch granule and protein interactions.     

离子强度对铁质砖红壤铜离子连续解吸的影响

研究了昆明铁质砖红壤中水吸附性铜离子依次在包括去离子水在内的浓度从低到高的Na NO3溶液中连续解吸时,电解质浓度和有机质去除对不同p H段铜离子解吸率的影响。结果表明,当铁质砖红壤中水吸附性铜离子依次在去离子水、0.01 mol L-1Na NO3、0.1 mol L-1Na NO3及1 mol L-1Na NO3中连续解吸时,去离子水和Na NO3溶液对铁质砖红壤p H-铜离子解吸率曲线形状影响截然不同。在去离子水中解吸时,解吸率曲线表现为单调下降,当解吸平衡液p H达到5.3左右时,铜离子解吸率降至基本为零,且解吸次数不影响这一规律;在Na NO3溶液中解吸时,除1 mol L-1者外,对于0.01 mol L-1和0.1 mol L-1者,铜离子解吸率曲线均在p H4.4~4.6之间出现解吸峰。部分去除有机质对解吸率的整体变化趋势并无根本影响。研究结果表明,土壤中吸附性铜离子可在去离子水中解吸的原因与双电层重叠以及离子强度降低导致土壤表面对铜离子解吸势增加有关,而解吸峰产生的可能原因与在不同p H段,体系p H对铁质砖红壤中吸持铜离子的羟基化比例和表面电荷性质的综合影响有关。     

Some Physicochemical Properties of Small‐, Medium‐, and Large‐Granule Starches in Fractions of Waxy Barley Grain

Barley grain was divided into eight fractions from the surface layer to the center with a machine used to polish brewers' rice. Small‐, medium‐, and large‐granule starches were isolated from classified barley flour, and their physicochemical properties were investigated. The starch granules were oval to round with a median size of 2 μm for small, 10 μm for medium, and 12–19 μm for large granules. From the surface layer to the center, both the median sizes and the ratio of large granules decreased, and the ratio of medium‐ and small‐granules increased. The starches had A‐type X‐ray diffraction patterns typical of cereal starches. The moisture sorption showed a negative correlation to the granule size. The gelatinization temperatures of starch granules in each layer were approximately the same, but the enthalpies decreased in the order of large, medium, and small granules.     

Effects of Growing Environment on Properties of Starch from Five Australian Wheat Varieties

The effects of growing conditions on properties of starch from wheat grain were examined. Growing conditions affected starch and amylose content, granule size distribution, protein associated with starch granules, and starch swelling power in grains from five commercial Australian milling wheat varieties grown at multiple locations in two years in crop production systems. Soil nitrogen and meteorological conditions were major contributors to variability in grain yield and grain protein and starch contents. The volume proportion of B‐granules was positively affected by warmer temperatures before flowering but negatively correlated with high temperatures during grain filling. Genotype was the main source of variability in the proportion of B‐granules and granule dimensions, starch‐granule proteins, and starch swelling power, although there were also significant contributions to variability from the growing conditions. Seasonal effects and interactions between genotype and season and location were significant sources of variability in amylose content, proportion of short chains of amylopectin, and flour swelling power. The positive relationships between starch content and the number of clear days and atmospheric temperatures before flowering indicate that conditions that enhance accumulation of assimilates before anthesis influence the deposition of reserves in developing grain.     

Effects of Wheat Starch Granule Size Distribution on Qualities of Chinese Steamed Bread and Raw White Noodles

Starch is a crucial component determining the processing quality of wheat‐based products such as Chinese steamed bread (CSB) and raw white noodles (RWN). Flour from wheat cultivar Zhongmai 175 was used for fractionation into starch, gluten, and water solubles by hand washing. The starch fraction was successfully separated into large (>10 μm diameter) and small starch granules (<10 μm diameter) by repeated sedimentation. Flour fractions were reconstituted to original levels in the flour by using constant gluten and water solubles and varying the weight ratio of large and small starch granules. As the proportion of small granules increased in the reconstituted flours, farinograph water absorption increased, and amylose content, pasting peak viscosity, trough, and final viscosity decreased. Starch granule size distribution significantly affected processing quality of CSB and RWN. Superior crumb structure score (12.0) was observed in CSB made from reconstituted flour with 35% small starch granules. CSB made from reconstituted flours with 30 and 35% small starch granules exhibited the highest total scores, with values of 85.4 and 83.3, respectively. Significant improvements in color, viscoelasticity, and smoothness of RWN were obtained with an increase in small starch granule content, and reconstituted flours with 30–40% small starch granules produced RWN with moderate firmness.