Estimating stand water use of large mountain ash trees and validation of the sap flow measurement technique

Mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans F.J. Muell.) forest catchments exhibit a strong relationship between stand age and runoff, attributed inter alia to differences in tree water use. However, the tree water use component of the mountain ash forest water balance is poorly quantified. We have used the sap flow technique to obtain estimates of daily water use in large mountain ash trees. First, the sap flow technique was validated by means of an in situ cut tree experiment. Close agreement was obtained between the sap flow estimate of water use and the actual uptake of water by the tree from a reservoir. Second, we compared the variability in sap velocity between a symmetric and an asymmetric tree by using multiple sap flow loggers. In the symmetric tree, velocity was fairly uniform throughout the xylem during the day, indicating that accurate sap flow estimates can be obtained with a minimal number of sampling points. However, large variations in sap velocity were observed in the asymmetric tree, indicating that much larger sampling sizes are required in asymmetric stems for an accurate determination of mean sap velocity. Finally, we compared two procedures for scaling individual tree sap flow estimates to the stand level based on stem diameter and leaf area index measurements. The first procedure was based on a regression between stem diameter and tree water use, developed on a small sample of trees and applied to a stand-level census of stem diameter values. Inputs to the second procedure were tree water use and leaf area of a single tree and the leaf area index of the stand. The two procedures yielded similar results; however, the first procedure was more robust but it required more sampling effort than the second procedure.     

生长季水曲柳树干液流密度的特征

应用热扩散技术测定帽儿山不同径级水曲柳样木生长季的树干液流,初步分析和对比优势木、中等木和被压木树干液流密度的特征及季节变化趋势。结果表明,水曲柳树干液流密度变化具有明显的昼夜节律性,中等木液流密度变化呈单峰曲线,被压木液流密度变化曲线近似梯形,优势木液流密度变化呈弧形曲线,水曲柳中等木液流密度明显大于被压木和优势木。不同天气条件下液流密度日变化规律大不相同,阴雨天液流密度值较小且变化曲线十分不规则,波动性较大,甚至出现多峰曲线。生长季,优势木和被压木日液流通量最大值均出现在7月初至8月耒,分剐为1032．481／（m^2·d）和l063．78I／（m^2·d）;中等木液流通量最大值出现在6月初至6月末,为2260．911／（m^2·d）;优势木和被压木日液流通量最小值出现在9月份,中等木日液流通量最小值出现在生长季未期。,随季节推移,生长季各月份液流密度均值基本逐渐减小,进入生长季末期（10月）基本处于微弱渡动状态。水曲柳优势木和被压木6月份和9月份液流密度平均值均小于中等木,7月份和8月份液流密度月平均值非常接近;中等木液流密度平均值6月份最大,优势木和被压木的液流密度最大月均值出现在7月份,     

Relationships between Erwinia cancerogena Ur. and Aplanobacterium populi Ride

Detailed study of the bacteria Aplanobacterium populi and Erwinia cancerogena, employing cultural properties, disease symptoms, reisolations, serological properties, and filterable forms has shown close relationships between the two species. In both cases filterable forms, size 50–500 nm, exceptionally up to 900 nm were found. The filterable particles develop under the influence of a small spherical bacterial virus, size about 24 nm, which is adsorbed not only on vegetative cells but also on these filterable particles. The presence of bacterial virus and the formation of filterable particles influence directly the virulence of canker forming bacteria, notably the proliferation of tissues and the formation of tumour cankers.     

Isolierung eines Potyviruses aus erkrankter Fichte im Bayerischen Wald

Isolation of a Potyvirus from Norway Spruce in the Bavarian Forest . A flexuous filamentous virus was isolated from leaves of Nicotiana tabacum cv. Xanthi inoculated with Norway spruce sap from the Bavarian forest. The normal virus particle length was 800 nm and the diameter about 10–12 nm. According to cytological and immunoelectronmicroscopical studies and aphid transmission trials the virus particles belong to the potyvirus group.     

毛竹树干液流变化及其与气象因子的关系

2009年9月—2010年7月,利用热平衡包裹式茎流计对江西大岗山森林生态站的毛竹进行液流连续观测,并利用自动气象站同步观测气象因子。结果表明:不同季节晴天和阴天毛竹日均液流速率均表现出明显的昼夜变化规律;秋、冬季液流速率连日变化波动较小,而春、夏季受降雨的影响,液流速率波动较大;不同季节晴天毛竹液流速率呈单峰曲线,而春、夏两季有时出现双峰曲线,但午休现象不明显;不同季节不同天气条件毛竹夜间可能由于根压的原因而存在微弱的液流;不同季节毛竹由于水分吸收方式的差异,影响液流速率的主导因子也不一致,非生长季与空气温度的相关性最强,生长季均与光合有效辐射的相关性最强;毛竹液流速率表现显著的季节变化规律,生长末期、非生长期、生长初期和生长中期日均液流速率分别为(97.88±5.73)g·h-1,(52.27±3.66)g·h-1,(167.81±20.15)g·h-1和(414.04±48.62)g·h-1;以光合有效辐射、太阳辐射、气温等气象因子作自变量,液流速率作因变量,经逐步回归建立不同季节毛竹液流速率与气象因子的多元线性模型。     

An analysis of sap flow in mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) forests of different age

Diurnal measurements of sap velocity were made in 50-, 90-, 150- and 230-year-old mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell.) forests in the North Maroondah catchment (southeast Australia) over the periods January 8, 1990 to April 4, 1990 and October 29, 1990 to April 16, 1991. Over the two periods, daily mean sap velocities for the four forests, in order of increasing age, were 11.5, 11.4, 9.9 and 11.8 cm h(-1) respectively. Daily mean sap velocity did not differ significantly among the 50-, 90- and 230-year-old plots. However, in the 150-year-old trees it was significantly smaller by an average of 14%. Sap velocity varied diurnally and also between positions within individual trees and among trees both within and between stands. Despite this variability, the sampling intensity and duration were sufficient to establish that behavior was highly correlated among individuals within plots. There was a significant decline with age in the overstory sapwood conducting area of these forests. In order of increasing age, the values were 6.7, 6.1, 4.2 and 4.0 m(-2) ha(-1), respectively. When combined with daily mean sap velocity, these data allowed the calculation of overstory water use. Over the experimental period, water use of the overstory decreased with age ranging, on average, from 1.86 mm day(-1) for the 50-year-old plot to 0.81 mm day(-1) for the 230-year-old plot. Mean daily water use for the two intermediate-aged forests was 1.67 and 1.00 mm day(-1), respectively. Annual water use decreased with forest age from 679 mm for the 50-year-old stand to 296 mm for the 230-year-old stand. This difference corresponds to 3.8 x 10(3) m(3) ha(-1). The annual water use of the intermediate-aged stands was 610 and 365 mm for the 90- and 150-year-old stands, respectively.     

Relationships between stem diameter, sapwood area, leaf area and transpiration in a young mountain ash forest

We examined relationships between stem diameter, sapwood area, leaf area and transpiration in a 15-year-old mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell.) forest containing silver wattle (Acacia dealbata Link.) as a suppressed overstory species and mountain hickory (Acacia frigescens J.H. Willis) as an understory species. Stem diameter explained 93% of the variation in leaf area, 96% of the variation in sapwood area and 88% of the variation in mean daily spring transpiration in 19 mountain ash trees. In seven silver wattle trees, stem diameter explained 87% of the variation in sapwood area but was a poor predictor of the other variables. When transpiration measurements from individual trees were scaled up to a plot basis, using stem diameter values for 164 mountain ash trees and 124 silver wattle trees, mean daily spring transpiration rates of the two species were 2.3 and 0.6 mm day(-1), respectively. The leaf area index of the plot was estimated directly by destructive sampling, and indirectly with an LAI-2000 plant canopy analyzer and by hemispherical canopy photography. All three methods gave similar results.     

不同基质对仙客来生长开花的影响

通过对仙客来在4种基质上生长开花状况的观察研究结果表明,以“泥炭50％＋砻糠灰50％”为最佳基质,其次为“山泥50％＋砻糠灰50％”基质。     

Detection and genetic variability of European mountain ash ringspot‐associated virus (EMARaV) in Sweden

European mountain ash ringspot‐associated virus (EMARaV) is a plant virus inducing characteristic ringspots and mottling in Sorbus aucuparia L. For the first time, EMARaV was detected in mountain ash in Sweden. All four genomic segments of the virus were detectable by RT‐PCR after total RNA extraction from leaves showing chlorotic ringspots, mottling or necrotic lesions. The samples originated from southern and northern Sweden. Sequence analyses of amplified fragments revealed low genetic variability of the virus at nucleotide as well as protein level. All investigated coding regions of EMARaV were under strong purifying selection pressure.     

不同酿造工艺对树莓酒中单体酚的影响

为提高树莓酒品质,采用4种传统工艺和CO2浸渍工艺进行小容器(10L)树莓干酒的酿造,测定各种酒中单体酚。结果表明:CO2浸渍法酿制的树莓干酒中除芦丁外,其他酚类物质均要高于传统酿造法酿制的树莓干酒。2年陈酿的11%(v/v)干型树莓酒与未经陈酿的11%(v/v)干型树莓酒相比,阿魏酸、香豆酸和芦丁含量有所下降,水杨酸含量基本未发生变化,其余均有不同程度提高,特别是陈酿过程中槲皮素和安息香酸增量明显。高酒度利口酒芦丁含量远低于其他酒类,且有芦丁含量随酒度增高而降低的趋势。与传统工艺相比,CO2浸渍酿造的酒更适合酚类物质的转化,陈酿过程有利于芦丁含量下降,进一步改善酒的风味,实现口感的平衡。     

Characterization of residues from thermal treatment of treated wood and extraction of Cu, Cr, As and Zn

Thermal treatment of chromated copper arsenate (CCA) impregnated waste wood is a way to utilize the energy resource of the wood and at the same time to reduce the volume of the waste. An issue of concern in relation to the thermal treatment is As emission to the air. Meanwhile, there is still a matter to cope with when methods to avoid As emission are implemented: the residues with increased concentrations of Cu, Cr and As. In the present paper two different residues after thermal treatment are characterized: a mixed bottom and fly ash from combustion of CCA impregnated wood, and a charcoal from pyrolysis of treated waste wood. By SEM/EDX it was seen that the charcoal still showed wood structure with both tracheids and rays and that Cu, Cr and As were found inside this wood structure. Cu was found alone while Cr and As were often found together. By chemical analysis it was found, too, that the charcoal contained a high concentration of Zn, probably from paint. Chemical extraction experiments in HNO₃ were conducted with the charcoal and it was found that the order of extraction (in percentage) was Zn > Cu > As > Cr. A SEM/EDX investigation of the mixed ash from combustion showed the presence of small particles with wood structure with elevated Cu and Cr concentrations, but most particles were irregular shaped matrix particles rich in Si, Al and K. Cr was abundant in many different particles including the lignin skeleton of the small, unburned wood pieces, but also inside silica-based matrix particles. Ca was often found associated with char-like (porous) particles, indicating that Ca-arsenates had been formed during combustion. Cu was often associated with Cr in the unburned wood pieces, whereas it was less abundant inside the silica-based matrix particles. Cu was also found in an almost pure form in a small layer on the surface of some matrix particles indicating condensation of volatile Cu species. Chemical extraction with inorganic acids showed the order of percentages mobilized as: As > Cu > Cr.     

Radial distribution of sap flux density in trunks of a mature beech stand

In a mature beech stand located in north-eastern Germany, xylem sap flux measurements were continuously performed during the 2002–2004 growing seasons. Ten representative trunks were studied using heated thermal dissipation probes. The measurements aimed at identifying principles governing radial profiles of xylem flux in beech trunks. The measurements were taken up to a trunk depth of 132 mm. The sap flow density in the pericambial xylem was found to vary among trees of different diameters, but was not considerably smaller in suppressed trees. A model for the radial distribution of sap flux density was formulated relating trunk radius and sap flow density. The model takes into account different trunk diameter. About 90% of the sap flux was found to occur in the outer two fifths of the trunk. Using this model, an adequate estimate of transpiration can be achieved at tree and stand level, even when the sap flux measurements are restricted to the outer trunk sectors.     

Spring tree phenology in the Alps: effects of air temperature, altitude and local topography

A participatory network was set up to study tree phenology in the Western Alps. We used data collected in 2006 and 2007 on birch, ash, hazel, spruce and larch to assess how local air temperature, altitude and other topographic variables influenced dates of budburst and leaf unfolding. Altitude was, as expected, a main predictor variable of budburst and leafing dates with delays ranging from 2.4 to 3.4 days per 100 m. Ash was the only species with strong evidence of a year difference in the altitudinal gradient with the warm year (2007) characterized by a weaker altitudinal gradient. We found a latitudinal gradient in the appearance of budburst for one coniferous species (larch) and curvature affected leafing in ash. Thermal sum (sum of Degree-Days above 0 °C) was increasing with altitude for budburst (birch, ash and larch) and leafing (birch and ash). Understanding of altitude and topography effects in addition to temperature in phenological models should improve projections of future changes in mountain regions.     

Medium-term sap flux monitoring in a Scots pine stand: analysis of the operability of the heat dissipation method for hydrological purposes

The operability of Granier-type heat dissipation sap flow meters for the medium-term monitoring of Scots pine transpiration was tested. Three sensors that had been working for 3 years were duplicated by inserting new sensors in the same trees. The new sensors operated simultaneously with the old sensors for 18 months. Analysis of the temporal patterns of thermal dissipation of the sensors showed a slight, but significant decrease in all sensors, indicating the conservation of sapwood thermal properties. Although there was a high correlation between sap flux densities registered by the old and new sensors, significant differences in sap flux densities between the duplicated sensors were detected. Such differences could not be attributed to tissue injury around the sensors or to loss of sensitivity of the old sensors, because two of the old sensors registered higher flux rates than the new sensors. No instrumental error to explain the sap flux differences was found. Because the new sensors were installed at some angular distance from the old sap flow meters to avoid thermal interferences, it was inferred that the observed sap flux differences between duplicate sensors were the result of an azimuthal sap flow pattern.     

Stem radial CO_2 conductance affects stem respiratory CO_2 fluxes in ash and birch trees

The CO_2 released from respiring cells in woody tissues of trees can contribute to one of three fluxes:efflux to the atmosphere(E_A),internal xylem sap transport flux(F_T),and storage flux(DS).Adding those fluxes together provides an estimate of actual stem respiration(R_S).We know that the relative proportion of CO_2 in those fluxes varies greatly among tree species,but we do not yet have a clear understanding of the causes for this variation.One possible explanation is that species differ in stem radial CO_2 conductance(g_c).A high g_c would favor the E_A pathway and a low g_cwould favor the F_Tpathway.However,g_chas only been measured once in situ and only in a single tree species.We measured g_cusing two methods in stems of Fraxinus mandshurica Rupr.(ash)and Betula platyphylla Suk.(birch)trees in situ,along with R_S,E_A,F_T and DS.Stem radial CO_2 conductance was substantially greater in ash trees than in birch trees.Corresponding to that finding,in ash trees over 24 h,E_Aconstituted the entire flux of respired CO_2 ,and F_Twas negative,indicating that additional CO_2 ,probably transported from the root system via the xylem,was also diffusing into the atmosphere.In ash trees,F_T was negative over the entire 24 h,and this study represents the first time that has been reported.The addition of xylem-transported CO_2 to E_A caused E_Ato be 9% higher than the actual R_Sover the diel measurement period.Birch trees,which had lower g_c,also had a more commonly seen pattern,with E_A accounting for about 80% of the CO_2 released from local cell respiration and F_T accounting for the remainder.The inorganic carbon concentration in xylem sap was also lower in ash trees than in birch trees:2.7 versus 5.3 mmol L^-1,respectively.Our results indicate that stem CO_2 conductance could be a very useful measurement to help explain differences among species in the proportion of respired CO_2 that remains in the xylem or diffuses into the atmosphere.     

花楸种子变温处理及造林技术

对花楸种子进行沙藏变温处理能够打破种子深度休眠,促进发芽。另外采用和落叶松等针叶树混交,成活率高,生长快。     

不同时间尺度下兴安落叶松树干液流密度与环境因子的关系

基于连续1年的兴安落叶松树干液流密度和环境因子(光照、空气温度、空气湿度、土壤温度和土壤湿度)的测定结果,探讨不同时间尺度下树干液流密度与环境因子的关系差异.在月时间尺度上,土壤温度和土壤湿度显著影响树干液流密度变化,土壤温度单位增加引起树干液流上升0.084～0.123 L·cm-2 month-1;在天时间尺度上,显著影响因子有土壤温度、光照和空气温度,其中土壤温度为最主要的影响因子,单位增加会导致树干液流上升1.9 ～2.7 mL·cm-2 d-1;在小时时间尺度上,主要影响因子在不同季节不同,但最主要因子多是直接影响地上叶片生理指标如光照和空气湿度,二者单位上升平均分别引起树干液流上升1.239 mL·cm-2 min-1和下降0.0566 mL·cm-2 min-1.随尺度由大到小,对树干液流影响最大的因子有从地下直接与根系水分吸收相关的土壤环境因子向地上直接影响叶片蒸腾的环境因子(光照和空气湿度)转变的趋势.同时,随着尺度增大,与树干液流显著相关的环境因子数明显下降,且相关系数R2显著提高,长期监测树木耗水可以采用监测环境因子反推的方法,而在小尺度上相同方法可能导致很大误差,最好采用直接测定法.     

山西太岳山油松林木非生长季树干液流研究

2009年9月到2010年3月,在山西沁源县灵空山林场建设观测塔,用TDP探针对塔周围的不同胸径的ll棵油松林木在非生长季的树干液流速率及环境因子进行连续监测,研究油松林木树干液流变化规律。结果表明：非生长季的油松树干液流并没有停滞,正午的峰值逐渐消失,液流主要在夜间进行,最大值为16．11cm·h^-1,最小值为5．109×10^-5cm·h^-1,平均值为3．29cm·h^-1。在属于生长季末期的10月,不时有和生长季相同的单峰曲线出现,11月下旬后,白天和夜间的树干液流并无明显差异,趋于平稳。阴天则无峰或多峰。影响油松树干液流的环境因子主要有光合有效辐射、空气温度和相对湿度,三者都与液流速率既有显著正相关关系,又有显著负相关关系。土壤湿度与油松树干液流速率呈正相关关系。与太岳山生态站2005年所做的油松林木夏季的树干液流速率研究成果相结合,可以比较完整地反映油松林木树干液流速率全年的变化规律。     

A comparison of heat pulse velocity and lesion lengths for assessing the relative virulence of mountain pine beetle‐associated fungi on jack pine

The mountain pine beetle (MPB) vectors three blue‐stain fungi, Grosmannia clavigera, Ophiostoma montium and Leptographium longiclavatum, which contribute to the success of the beetles and the death of the trees. The utility of two methods, heat pulse velocity (HPV) and lesion length, for assessing the relative virulence of these fungi were compared on jack pine in central Alberta. The HPV monitoring apparatus failed to detect xylem sap flow in any of the trees and, thus, could not be used to assess fungal virulence. In contrast, measurement of lesion lengths was more sensitive and provided further evidence that G. clavigera and L. longiclavatum are more virulent than O. montium. The failure of the HPV apparatus to detect sap flow suggests that the study trees were moisture stressed, a factor likely to increase their susceptibility to MPB. Thus, this method is not appropriate for assessing the response of the most susceptible (i.e. drought stressed) trees to MPB and its associated fungi.