How the food supply harvestable by waders in the Wadden Sea depends on the variation in energy density,body weight,biomass, burying depth and behaviour of tidal-flat invertebrates

For several reasons, waders in the Wadden Sea face a large seasonal and annual variation in their food supply. Observations on a tidal flat in the Dutch Wadden Sea have shown that:

• 1.- (1) The average energy density of ten invertebrate prey species varies between 21 and 23 kJ·g⁻¹ AFDW. In Scrobicularia plana and Mya arenaria, but not in Macoma balthica, the energy density is 10% lower in winter than in summer.
• 2.- (2) Depending on the species, body weights of prey of similar size are 30 to 60% lower in winter than in summer.
• 3.- (3) The year-to-year fluctuation in standing-crop biomass is larger in some species than in others, the difference depending mainly on the frequency of successful recruitment. The overall biomass of the macrobenthos in winter is half of that in summer, but the timing of the peak biomass differs per species.
• 4.- (4) The burying depth varies per species: Cerastoderma edule live just beneath the surface, while M. balthica, S. plana, M. arenaria, Arenicola marina and Nereis diversicolor bury more deeply and the majority of these prey live out of reach of the bird's bill. In all six species, burying depth increases with size. There is no seasonal variation in depth of C. edule and M. arenaria, but the four other species live at most shallow depth in early summer and most deeply in midwinter. Burying depths in winter vary from year to year, but are unrelated to temperature. Neither has temperature any effect on depth within months. For knot Calidris canutus feeding on M. balthica, the fluctuation in the accessible fraction was the main source of variation in the biomass of prey that is actually harvestable, i.e. the biomass of prey of suitable size that is accessible.Accordingly, the paper reviews the available data on the temporal variations in accessibility, detectability, ingestibility, digestibility and profitability of prey for waders. Only a small part of the prey is harvestable since many accessible prey are ignored because of their low profitability, while many profitable prey are inaccessible. The profitability of prey depends on their size and weight but also on their depth in the mud, since handling time increases with burying depth. A simple biomechanical rule explains why the handling time of small prey increases with bill length and why large, long-billed waders ignore a disproportionately larger part of the small prey. The fraction detectable for visually feeding waders is usually very low, especially when the temperature of the substrate is below 3–6°C. Waders vary their prey choice over the year in response to the changes in the availability and profitability of their different prey species. The food supply harvestable by waders is much lower in winter than in summer. For waders wintering in the Wadden Sea, the food supply may be characterized as unpredictable and usually meagre. Waders wintering in NW Europe are concentrated in coastal sites where the average surface temperature is above 3°C. This probably cannot be explained by a greater burying depth, and only partly by a lower body condition, of prey in colder areas. Yet the harvestable fraction is lower in colder sites, especially for sight-feeding waders, as invertebrates are less active at low temperatures. However, the lower energetic cost of living and reduced chances of the prey being covered by ice may also contribute to the waders' preference for warmer sites.

     

Does the influence of the epibenthic predator crangon crangon L. (brown shrimp) extend to sediment microalgae and bacteria?

The effect of juvenile Crangon crangon L. (brown shrimp) on the microbial part of the food web of marine shallow-water sandy sediment was investigated in two experiments using an outdoor flow-through system. Biomass, composition and productivity of microalgae and bacteria, POC and PON content in the sediment, as well as nutrient and oxygen fluxes, were measured in the absence and presence of two natural densities (50 and 100 ind·m⁻²) of juvenile Crangon. Stimulating effects of the presence of juvenile Crangon on both microalgae and bacteria were observed after three weeks. However, the number of statistically significant effects was low, despite the conspicuous change in sediment characteristics caused by Crangon activity. To explain the possible trophic effect of Crangon via meiofaunal grazing, the results were compared with meiofaunal grazing rates (dual labelling by ¹⁴C-bicarbonate and ³H-thymidine) and changes in the meiofaunal and macrofaunal community. The reasons for the low number of significant trophic effects of Crangon on algae and bacteria were that the overall meiofaunal grazing pressure on microbiota was low, and that only part of the meiofauna (mainly harpacticoid copepods) was significantly affected by the predator. Meiofauna thus appeared to be a weak mediating link in the sandy sediment system investigated. No effect of Crangon on oxygen fluxes, or POC and PON content in the sediment was observed. Neither were the nutrient concentrations in the overlying water affected, but increased nutrient levels in the pore water were observed. According to theoretical calculations, excretion from the shrimp may imply a considerable nutrient addition which can be rapidly re-utilized by the microbes directly at the sediment/water interface. Bioturbation by Crangon appeared to counteract flaking of the microalgal mat.     

What determines the densities of feeding birds on tidal flats? A case study on dunlin,Calidris alpina,in the Wadden Sea

The tidal and seasonal pattern of habitat utilization by dunlin was studied in a tidal-flat area in a shallow bay called Königshafen, island of Sylt, by counting the number of dunlins on marked plots at 10-min intervals over whole tidal cycles. Sediment type, tidal elevation, and seasonal changes in food choice were found to influence the feeding densities of dunlin irrespective of total numbers present in the area. Densities of dunlin were generally highest on low muddy substrates. A preference for high sandy substrates was found in late summer. The tidal pattern of habitat utilization differed between areas. In preferred areas dunlin stayed during the whole emersion period. Other areas were only used by following the moving tide line. Seasonal changes in habitat utilization were apparently triggered by changes in food choice. In spring dunlin fed almost exclusively on polychaetes. In late summer a relatively high proportion of shrimps, Crangon crangon, was found in the diet of dunlins. The preference for shrimps may force the birds to stay away from the tide line, where the shrimps can escape into deeper waters. It is recommended that studies on habitat utilization on tidal flats should consider the tidal behaviour of the target species, as single low-tide counts may not give valid results.     

Scale and intensity of intertidal habitat use by knots Calidris canutus in the Western Wadden Sea in relation to food,friends and foes

In August–October 1988–1992 we studied the distribution and abundance of knots Calidris canutus around Griend in the western Wadden Sea, and the extent to which these can be explained by benthic prey availability and presence of avian predators. Numbers in the nonbreeding season showed monthly averages of 10 000 to 25 000 birds. Over 100 000 knots were recorded on three occassions. Knots feed in large flocks, individual birds usually experiencing 4 000 to 15 000 flock-mates. The Siberian-breeding/west-African wintering canutus subspecies passed through in late July and early August. Otherwise the Greenlandic/Canadian breeding islandica subspecies was present. Over the period 1964–1992 there were no clear trends in the number of knots, but canutus-knots were particularly abundant in July–August 1991, whereas in 1992 both subspecies were absent.Macoma balthica was the preferred prey of both subspecies. Hydrobia ulvae, Mytilus edulis and Cerastoderma edule were eaten when Macoma was absent close to the surface of the sediment. As Macoma buried deeper from July onwards, canutus faced better average feeding conditions than islandica later in the year. The spatial distributon of knots feeding on the intertidal flats around Griend was best explained by the harvestable biomass of the prevalent prey species in a particular year and season, i.e. Macoma (main prey when their harvestable biomass densities were greater than ca 0.8 g AFDM per m²) and Cerastoderma, and by the avoidance of situations where they run the risk of attack by bird-eating birds. Flocks of knots covered most of the intertidal flats in the Western Dutch Wadden Sea in a couple of tidal cycles. This is about 800 km², much larger than the equivalent area used by knots on their wintering grounds in Mauritania (10–15 km²), a difference that is correlated with prey spectrum, prey availability and predictability.     

Environmental effects of the growth rate of intertidal invertebrates and some implications for foraging waders

The paper describes effects of intertidal height and sediment type on growth rate of the bivalves Cerastoderma edule, Macoma balthica, Mya arenaria, Mytilus edulis and Scrobicularia plana, and of the worms Arenicola marina, Nephtys hombergii and Nereis diversicolor in the eastern part of the Dutch Wadden Sea. In most species, exposure time was negatively correlated with length growth, although interfering effects of sediment type could not be ruled out. When controlled for the effects of exposure time, clay content of the sediment appeared to affect the growth of all species, but in different ways. The variation was related to the foraging methods of the invertebrates. Foraging waders may use the spatial variation in growth rate of the invertebrates to optimize the exploitation of individual cohorts.     

Ecology of the fishes of the Norwegian Deep: Distribution and species assemblages

An account based on hydroacoustic data and trawl surveys of the distributional patterns and species assemblages of the fishes inhabiting the Norwegian Deep and adjacent slopes is presented. The Norwegian Deep is the moderately deep (275 to 700 m) shelf channel extending from the Norwegian Sea into the North Sea and Skagerrak.The Norwegian Deep has a pelagic and demersal fish fauna which is rather different from the fauna in adjacent shallow areas. Blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou) and Maurolicu muelleri form a widely distributed and normally two-layered pelagic association. There appears to exist a rather sharp boundary at about the 200 m isobath between species assemblages of the Norwegian Deep and those of the shallow plateaus of the North Sea and Skagerrak. The fish fauna of deeper zones of the Skagerrak differs from the areas off western and southwestern Norway. The more conspicuous feature in the Skagerrak is the rather high abundance of greater argentine (Argentina silus) and roundnose grenadier (Coryphaenoides rupestris) at depths greater than 300 m. The species assemblages of the Norwegian Deep resemble those found in the areas along the outer shelf of the Northeast Atlantic and the deep fjords of Norway. The western and southern slopes appear to be feeding and overwintering areas for some fish species from adjacent shallow areas, particularly populations of saithe (Pollachius virens) and Norway pout (Trisopterus esmarki).It is suggested that the Norwegian Deep, due to its characteristic bathymetry and the strong influence of Atlantic inflow, is colonized by mesopelagic and benthic species from the other shelf areas of the Northeast Atlantic. The shelf channel appears to be deep enough to allow outer shelf species temporary or permanent access to the inner shelf environment.     

灌溉水盐度和施氮量对棉花根系分布影响研 究简

 通过田间小区试验,研究了不同灌溉水盐度和施氮量对滴灌棉花根系分布的影响。试验设置3种灌溉水盐度;0.35、4.61和8.04 dS·m^-1（分别代表淡水、微咸水和咸水三种灌溉水类型）;施氮量为0、240、360和480 kg·hm^-2。结果表明,按质量计,棉花的根主要分布在0~20 cm,此部分占根总质量的85%~90%。微咸水和咸水灌溉棉花根的总质量显著降低,分别较淡水灌溉减少10%和36%,尤其在土壤表层0~20 cm和下层60~100 cm显著降低;施用氮肥可以显著增加棉花根的质量。以长度计,棉花根集中分布在0~60 cm,此部分占总根长的87%~96%;60 cm以下根长密度明显降低。微咸水灌溉棉花根长密度最大,其次是咸水,淡水灌溉最低;淡水灌溉下,根长密度随施氮量增加显著降低;微咸水和咸水灌溉下,根长密度随施氮量增加呈先增后降趋势,其中施氮240 kg·hm^-2最高。棉花根表面积表现为微咸水>淡水>咸水,平均根直径为微咸水>咸水>淡水,而不同灌溉水处理间根体积的差异不显著。随着施氮量的增加,根表面积、根体积和平均直径均显著降低。     

Sucrose feeding of Cut Dendrobium inflorescences promotes bud opening,inhibits abscission of open flowers,and delays tepal senescence

Inflorescences of Dendrobium cv. Khao Sanan were held in distilled water (controls) or in solutions containing two antimicrobial compounds (silver nitrate and 8-hydroxyquinoline sulfate) with or without 4 g L⁻¹ sucrose or 4 g L⁻¹ glucose. Sugar + antimicrobial compounds promoted bud opening and largely prevented abscission of open flowers. It also resulted in a delay of tepal senescence. No clear effect was found of sucrose feeding on the concentrations of sucrose, glucose and fructose in the tepals of open flowers, but an increase in sucrose, glucose, and fructose concentrations was found in the column + labellum. It is concluded that the effect of sugar feeding on abscission and tepal senescence might relate to a reduction of ethylene sensitivity. It was previously concluded that tepal senescence in Dendrobium flowers was not regulated in the tepals but in the column. It is not clear how the increased in sugar levels in the column + labellum relates to the delay of tepal senescence after sugar feeding.     

Selection of phytoplankton species in culture by gradual salinity changes

Continuous cultures of mixed phytoplankton populations were subjected to gradual salinity changes. The phytoplankton was exposed to defined regimes of high, low or fluctuating salinity, in artificial brackish media. In several experiments ammonium was the limiting nutrient. A rapid selection process was observed in natural phytoplankton assemblages. A gradual freshening caused the dominance of Chaetoceros mülleri at low salinity (S = 5). Skeletonema costatum became dominant at higher, constant or fluctuating salinities, accompanied by Ditylum brightwellii in low cell numbers. Ammonium limitation was not achieved in this experiment. Competition for ammonium was studied in a second experiment, using an inoculum of two species. At S = 18 D. brighwellii became the dominant species in this competition. A minor shift towards S = 15 reversed the affinities for ammonium, and S. costatum won the competition. At S = 8 S. costatum had the highest affinity for ammonium after a period of osmotic adjustment. Ammonium became limiting when salinities arrived at constant meso- or polyhaline levels. Both species were able to grow in fluctuating osmotic environments (S = 5 to 19). The growth of D. brightwellii decreased below S = 8 and after repeated variations of the salinity. These salinity fluctuations suppressed growth and ammonium uptake of both species, thus preventing ammonium limitation. These competition experiments indicate that unstable salinity may stimulate the mass development of S. costatum in brackish lakes.     

An evaluation of intertidal feeding habitats from a shorebird perspective: Towards relevant comparisons between temperate and tropical mudflats

Macrozoobenthic communities of intertidal soft sediments are reviewed worldwide from the perspective of a mollusc-eating shorebird species. Based on 19 sites, total biomass figures varied between 5 and 80 g AFDM per m² (average 24 g AFDM per m²); no latitudinal trends are apparent. The contribution made by bivalves and gastropods varies between 1% and 99%, north-temperate intertidal flats having relatively more molluscs than tropical flats. Intertidal flats in the tropics contain a greater variety of taxa, with brachiopods in Indonesia and echinoderms in northwest Australia contributing significantly to biomass only there. Limits to the occurrence of avian predators of intertidal benthos are set by the harvestable fraction of the biomass on offer and the costs of living at a particular site. No systematic differences in the harvestable fraction of the total mollusc-biomass for a worldwide occurring shorebird species specializing on molluscs (knots Calidris canutus) were apparent between temperate and tropical intertidal areas, in spite of large differences in maintenance metabolism incurred by these birds. The harvestable fractions of bivalves in the two West African areas (Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania and Guinea-Bissau) tended to be high (23–84% of total biomass in six species), they were relatively low (2–52% in five species) in the temperate Wadden Sea and the tropical northwest Australian site. Harvestable biomass determines the intake rate of shorebirds, as illustrated by functional-response curves of knots feeding on two bivalves species. We argue that the collection of information on size-depth relationships along with faunal and biomass surveys at a range of sites is bound to greatly increase our understanding of both the biology of tidal-flat invertebrates and the resource base underpinning the spectacular seasonal migrations of shorebirds.     

Size and phytoplankton selection by oosterschelde zooplankton

Grazing of adults of the copepods Acartia spp., Temora longicornis, Centropages hamatus and nauplii of Balanus spp. on natural particulate matter from the Oosterschelde was studied using a Coulter counter. Two types of particulate matter distributions were found to occur in the Oosterschelde: 1. distributions with distinct peaks in the > 20 μm size range (A) and 2. more flattened distributions which were bell-shaped or contained multiple small peaks spread over the entire 4–100 μm size range (B). In A-type distributions, peak tracking was performed in all species studied, especially in Acartia spp. and T. longicornis. In B-type distributions, the animals tended to spread their grazing activity towards the smaller particles.Quantitative microscopical analysis of the phytoplankton distributions shows that A- and B-type distributions were caused by the presence (A) or absence (B) of blooms of phytoplankton species with an SED of > 20 μm, reaching concentrations of >1.40·10⁶ μm³·cm⁻³.The demonstrated clearance rate distributions are shown to result in a concentration of phytoplankton in the ingested material as compared to the medium for all copepod species studied. Balanus spp. nauplii did not demonstrate this systematic selection of phytoplankton. When B-distributions occurred, only Acartia spp. switched its feeding activity towards smaller particles to such a degree that a substantial contribution of the <20 μm size range to the ingested material resulted. Whether this behaviour represents a higher selection capacity for small phytoplankton species or a detritivorous behaviour remains an open question.     

新疆农田防护林防风固沙服务功能价值核算

研究农田防护林防风固沙服务功能的价值对于新疆农业的发展和生态环境的保护具有重要意义。运用市场价值法、影子价格法等,对新疆2007年和2011年农田防护林防风固沙服务功能价值进行了核算。结果表明,2007年和2011年农田防护林防风固沙服务功能的总价值分别为73.50亿元和128.08亿元,防风固沙价值中起主要作用的是防护林的防护价值;新疆农田防护林林产品及防风固沙总价值年均增加17.650亿元。其中,防护的价值增加最大为8.240亿元,其次为固沙、林产品分别为5.405亿元、4.005亿元。防风固沙服务功能价值在农田防护林中贡献巨大,应该尽快建立市场补偿机制和完善生态服务功能价值评估方法,促进农田防护林从生态型向生态经济型转变。     

Cost-effective treatment of piggery wastewater

Nine complete wastewater and sludge treatment trains are presented for a case of two industrial piggeries, with unit water uses of 28 and 20 litres d⁻¹ per hog and respective COD_f concentrations of 14 and 20 g litre⁻¹.Assuming two energy cost levels of 4 and 12 ¢ kWh⁻¹, full economic effectiveness analyses are presented. All wastewater unit processes are based on actual laboratory-, pilot- or full-scale results. The treatment systems analyzed combine both practiced aerobic and novel anaerobic technology. Analysis is based on the ratio of the effectiveness index defined as total annual cost in dollars per kilogram COD removed for each system to the index for a series of lagoons (SystemI). The lagoon system has been regarded as standard by the industry, which traditionally consisted of mostly small piggeries of less than 2000 animals. It has been found that some of the practiced systems: extended aeration; chemical coagulation; series of lagoons; and systems featuring land disposal, are not cost-effective. With the increase in concentration of wastes and inflationary energy costs, the systems combining high-rate anaerobic and aerobic unit processes can do the same job at half or even a third of the total annual cost, expressed as cost per unit COD removed.Although numerous simplifications had to be made in the analysis, the results are conservative. The organic loads used for anaerobic reactors were lower than actually achieved; heat losses were assumed higher than normal. On the other hand cost of land, a significant factor in traditional Systems I and VII, was not included. Existence of, or lack of, odor problems were not factored into the comparison. To compensate for the higher level of skill required to operate anaerobic reactors, their gas production rates were lowered to 0·25 m³ CH₄ per kilogram COD removed.     

The forage base of some reef fishes in the flores sea with notes on sampling and fishery

Data are given on the forage base of three reef fish species, Myripristis murdjan, Mulloidichthys auriflamma and Caesio coerulaureus obtained during the Indonesian-Dutch Snellius-II Expedition. Attention is given to relations with the environment and sampling techniques. Fishing with gill nets is the best sampling method, particularly for migratory species, Seasonal fishing for pelagic fishes is most important from an economic point of view. Additional exploitation of benthic and demersal resources is essential for subsistence.     

Effects of tree windbreak on microclimate and wheat productivity in a Mediterranean environment

The presence of windbreaks is usually considered positive in mitigating the evapotranspiration (ET). For this reason, the windbreak barrier is included among the agro-techniques specific for the dry-farming systems. Objective of the study is to analyze the actual benefits of windbreaks on crop water requirements and yield.The 3-year field study has been carried integrating agronomic and microclimatic approaches. Study concerned durum wheat growing in open field, in a typical Mediterranean environment. A Cupressus arizonica L. windbreak (3 m in height) bordered at North the experimental field.The analysis of the microclimatic observations shows that, when wind blew from the North direction, the windbreak presence influenced the wind speed until the distance 12.7H (H is the windbreak height), and temperature increased in a distance of 4.7H from the barrier.On the basis of the soil water content, continuously measured by TDR technique, evapotranspiration (ET_d) was daily determined and season ET calculated. Windbreaks mitigated ET for a distance of 12.7 times the windbreak height. Out of this area, the ET was 16% higher than the ET measured near the windbreak belt (<4.7H).Yield performances changed accordingly the distance from the windbreak. Within the distance of 18 times the windbreak height, wheat productions were higher than those obtained in the zone not influenced by the windbreaks.Within the protected area, wheat water use efficiency (WUE, calculated as the ratio between yield and seasonal evapotranspiration) attained the maximum value of 1.15; out of the windbreak protection, WUE was 0.70 kg m^?3.Since windbreaks reduce ET, farms of the Mediterranean environments should be re-designed in order to consider the windbreaks as possible issue of sustainability.     

Year-to-year variability in the biomass of macrobenthic animals on tidal flats of the Wadden Sea: How predictable is this food source for birds?

The Wadden Sea is important as a stop-over and wintering area for several species of waders, foraging for shorter or longer times on its tidal flats. The size of the food stocks these birds encounter varies from place to place and from year to year. We studied characteristics of the variability in time of such prey stocks, using long-term data series of annual estimates of biomass of macrobenthic animals collected on tidal flats in various parts of the Dutch and German Wadden Sea. Year-to-year fluctuations were stronger in nearly all individual benhos species than in total macrozoobenthic biomass. The various species differed significantly in their year-to-year variability. Everywhere the tellinid bivalve Macoma balthica was relatively stable, whereas species such as the cockle Cerastoderma edule and the polychaetes Lanice conchilega, Nephtys hombergii and Anaitides mucosa fluctuated heavily and rapidly in all parts of the Wadden Sea where they were found. Within species, fluctuations in biomass of individual age or size classes were stronger than those in total biomass of the species.Several species showed minimal biomass values in the same years over vast areas. This synchronization of scarcity was caused particularly by similar responses to winter character, which was each year similar over the entire Wadden Sea. Such similar responses included low over-winter survival during severe winters and recruitment failure after exceptionally mild winters. Immediately after severe winters, such cold-sensitivee species as C. edule, L. conchilega and N. hombegii were scarce all over the Waden Sea, thus liimiting the possibilities for birds to switch to other parts of the Wadden Sea to find their preferred prey in sufficient quantitu. Simultaneous recruitment failure in several important bivalve species (C. edule, Mytilus edulis, and Mya arenaria limited the possibility for specialized bivalve consumers to switch to alternative prey types in certain years.     

Copper,zinc and cadmium in benthic organisms from the Java Sea and estuarine and coastal areas around East Java

A study was made of the concentrations of copper, zinc and cadmium in benthic organisms, representing the phyla Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata and Pisces, from the riverine and estuarine areas of the rivers Brantas and Solo (East Java) and the adjacent coastal area. Moreover, an assessment was made of the contamination of the benthic biota with these elements in the Java Sea and Bali Sea.Benthic organisms show a species-specific uptake pattern for each element. Compared to the same type of animals from estuaries and coastal areas in temperate regions of western Europe, the concentrations of cadmium are considerably higher, while copper and zinc concentrations are somewhat lower.There is no general trend in concentration levels of the metals in specimens from rivers, estuaries, coastal zone and open sea. In some groups of organisms (e.g. shrimp, starfish) the concentrations of copper and zinc are highest in specimens from rivers and estuaries. In contrast, cadmium concentration levels in e.g. crab, shrimp and squid are lowest in riverine and estuarine areas.Significant differences in metal concentrations in these organisms were found between the dry monsoon period (July, August) and the beginning of the wet monsoon (November, December).No relationship existed between the metal concentration of the organisms and the silt fraction of the sediment (grain size < 63 μm) or the bulk sediment.     

Effect of the brown shrimp Crangon crangon L. on endobenthic macrofauna,meiofauna and meiofaunal grazing rates

The effect of natural densities (50 and 100 ind·m⁻²) of juvenile (<20 mm) Crangon crangon on abundance of endobenthic macrofauna and meiofauna and on meiofaunal grazing rates was investigated in two experiments using an outdoor flow-through system with sandy sediment. The experiments differed in duration (3 wk and 7.5 wk), and in time of the year (August – September and July – August). Macrofaunal biomass differed by a factor of 10 between the experiments, and was depressed by shrimp in both experiments. Neither total meiofaunal biomass, nor the biomass of the dominant taxon (nematodes), was significantly affected by the presence of Crangon in the shorter experiment. However, harpacticoid copepods and other meiofauna taxa (mainly ostracods, foraminiferans and juvenile bivalves) decreased in the presence of Crangon. In the longer experiment, no significant effect of Crangon on meiofauna was seen, and the biomass of most meiofaunal groups increased in all treatments. Meiofaunal grazing rates in microalgae and bacteria, measured with a dual-labelling method, using ¹⁴C-bicarbonate and [methyl-³]]-thymidine as tracers, were 0.7 to 4.7% of algal biomass per day, and 0.8 to 7.9% of bacterial biomass per day. Generally, grazing rates were lower in the presence than in the absence of Crangon. In terms of carbon ingested, microalgae constituted a more important food source than bacteria for all three meiofaunal groups (nematodes, harpacticoids and other meiofauna). No individual growth of Crangon was found in the high-density treatment in the longer experiment, suggesting that intraspecific competition occurred. The difference between the two experiments in the effect of Crangon on meiofauna is thought to be caused by the large difference in macrofaunal biomass between the experiments; the shrimp ate mainly juvenile macrofauna in the longer experiment. Overall, the effect of Crangon on the sediment system was weak, suggesting that other factors (physical and chemical) are more important than epibenthic predation in setting the overall limits for production in this sediment.     

微咸水膜下滴灌土壤水盐运移研究进展

覆膜灌溉、滴灌和利用微咸水灌溉是极具生命力的3种节水灌溉方式。将三者结合的微咸水膜下滴灌是一项复杂的系统工程,对土壤和作物存在潜在的威胁。因此,近30年来国内外学者对膜下滴灌土壤水盐动态、微咸水灌溉影响效应,以及膜下滴灌土壤水盐运移模型进行了细致研究,并取得大量成果。但是,作物-水盐之间相互作用机理的探寻、田间尺度的盐分迁移转化参数问题,以及如何结合当地土壤水土资源状况,建立安全高效的膜下微咸水滴灌的土壤水盐调控技术体系和灌溉模式,并在区域上推广应用等问题亟待解决。     

A pubescence color gene enhances tolerance to cold-induced seed cracking in yellow soybean

In yellow soybean, severe cold weather causes seed cracking on the dorsal side. Yellow soybeans carry the I or iⁱ allele of the I locus and have a yellow (I) or pigmented (iⁱ) hilum. We previously isolated an additional allele, designated as Ic, of the I locus, and reported that yellow soybeans with the IcIc genotype may be tolerant to cold-induced seed cracking. The Ic allele by itself, however, does not confer high tolerance. The association of a pubescence color gene (T) with suppression of low-temperature-induced seed coat deterioration has been previously reported. In the present study, we tested whether T is effective for the suppression of cold-induced seed cracking using two pairs of near-isogenic lines for the T locus in the iⁱiⁱ or IcIc background. In both backgrounds, the cracked seed rate of the near-isogenic line with the TT genotype was significantly lower than that with the tt genotype, which indicates that T has an inhibitory effect on cold-induced seed cracking. Furthermore, we also showed that gene pyramiding of Ic and T can improve tolerance to cold-induced seed cracking. Our findings should aid the development of highly SC-tolerant cultivars in soybean breeding programs.