A novel automated method for the adjustment of ionic metal concentrations in soil extracts

A novel method is proposed for correcting metal fraction concentrations remaining within the sediment containing the solid residue of the sequentially extracted fraction. An easy‐to‐use Excel spreadsheet was prepared to assist adjustment of concentration in each fraction and demonstrate the difference between adjusted and non‐adjusted metal concentration of the fraction. The demonstration of a calculation of the modified BCR protocol data showed that this difference may reach 10–15% of the result value. The spreadsheet is available to download at: http://departments.agri.huji.ac.il/zabam/Rosen_Chen_Fraction_Adjustment_Formulae.xls     

Suitability of the aluminon technique for measuring phytotoxic aluminum in solutions with varying sulfate concentrations

Abstract

Considerable uncertainty prevails concerning a suitable measure that can adequately describe Al phytotoxicity in nutrient and soil solutions. A study was conducted to evaluate the ability of a modified aluminon technique to discriminate between phytotoxic and non‐phytotoxic Al in solutions containing 80 μM Al with varying levels of CaSO₄(625 to 10000 μM), at two pH levels (4.2 and 4.8). The concentration of Al measured by the modified aluminon technique ranged from 18.3 to 77.7 μM,thereby indicating substantial polymerization in some of the solutions. The greatest amount of polymerization occurred at pH 4.8 in the presence of 625 μM CaSO₄. Increasing additions of CaSO₄resulted in an increase in predicted activity of AlSO₄ ⁺at both pH levels. However, with increasing addition of CaSO₄, the predicted activity of Al³⁺decreased at pH 4.2 or remained relatively constant at pH 4.8. The relationship between the sum of predicted activities of monomeric Al (Sa_{Al mono.}) in solution and tap root length of soybean [Glvcine max(L.) Merr.] cv. Lee was extremely poor, thereby indicating the inability of the modified aluminon technique to measure phytotoxic Al in solutions employed in the current study. This difficulty was due to failure of the modified aluminon technique to exclude lesser phytotoxic AlSO₄ ⁺species. The activity of Al³⁺was closely related to tap root length (R²= 0.865). The prediction of root length response to Al was further improved (R²= 0.899) by considering the solution Al index as: S[3a_A13+ + 2a_Al(OH)2+ + a_A1(OH)+]. There was a poor relationship between tap root length and the concentration of polymeric Al, thus suggesting the lower phytotoxicity of this component under the prevailing solution conditions.     

A novel sediment fingerprinting method using filtration: application to the Mara River, East Africa

Purpose

Sediment fingerprinting with elemental tracers is widely used to identify sources of sediment to rivers. However, due to the need to isolate large amounts of suspended sediment, this approach can be difficult to implement in remote locations, such as the Mara River in Kenya, where high (and increasing) sediment loads are of concern.

Materials and methods

We report several innovations that allowed us to carry out sediment fingerprinting in a portion (>6,500 km²) of the Mara River Basin. First, we utilized sediment-laden filters (sediment mass ～0.1 g) for our river samples, rather than the traditional approach of extracting >1 g of sediment from large volumes of water. This allowed us to easily collect flow-weighted samples, and to process and analyze samples without access to centrifugation equipment. We carried out extensive quality control tests to ensure that we could reproducibly measure elemental concentrations of sediment trapped on filters. Second, we modified a readily available Bayesian inference mixing model (Stable Isotope Analysis in R) to create source signatures and to apportion downstream samples to sources. Third, we included hippo feces as a potential source, given the critical role that large wildlife plays in this ecosystem.

Results and discussion

We found that: (1) sediment captured by filtration can be digested and analyzed reproducibly and used in sediment fingerprinting; (2) our four sources (three geographic categories and hippo feces) were reasonably well-separated in their signatures; (3) the three sub-basins all contributed substantially to sediment loading in the Mara; and (4) hippo feces contributed a small, but measurable, proportion of sediment in this system.

Conclusions

Sediment-laden filters can be used successfully in identifying sediment sources through fingerprinting. The modified method of sediment fingerprinting should prove useful in other remote river basins. Our results support the hypothesis that the Upper Mara is important in supplying sediments to the river, while also highlighting the Talek sub-basin as a major contributor.     

Leaf element concentrations of jojoba cuttings during vegetative propagation as related to nutrition and growth

Abstract

Response of jojoba [simmondsia chinensis (Link) Schneider] cuttings to fertilization during mist propagation was studied during two spring seasons and a summer season, using a soluble fertilizer (Peter's 20–8.6–16.5) and 3 controllled release fertilizers: Osmocote 19–2.6–10, Isobutylidene dlurea 20–2.1–4 and sulfur coated urea, 36–0–0.

Initial leaf concentrations of N, P and K were lower in spring than in summer and greater at lining‐out for fertilized cuttings. Leaf N and K content were positively correlated to root and shoot growth in spring and to shoot growth in summer. Leaf Zn and Mn were positively related to shoot and root growth in spring.     

Effects of foliage wetness on the dry deposition of ozone onto red maple and poplar leaves

The deposition of ozone onto hypostomatous red maple and amphistomatous hybrid poplar leaves was studied under controlled environments. Under similar environmental conditions, the ozone deposition was substantially greater onto poplar than onto maple leaves. Two kinds of surface wetness (simulating dew and raindrops) were artificially created on leaves to determine how deposition was affected. The ozone deposition onto wet maple leaves markedly increased almost immediately after water spraying. The increases were measured during both daytime and nighttime conditions. Nighttime measurements revealed that the enhanced ozone deposition onto wet maple leaves was largely controlled by the chemistry of the solution which eventually developed while leaves remained wet. Unlike maple leaves, small ozone deposition reductions were measured after poplar leaves became wet during daytime conditions. In addition, little ozone deposition was detected onto wet poplar leaves during the night, indicating that leaf water chemistry was less important for poplar than for maple leaves.     

A novel approach to the quantification of bovine milk in ovine cheeses using a duplex polymerase chain reaction method

A duplex Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) method able to detect bovine milk in ovine cheeses was developed. This method is based on the mitochondrial 12S and 16S rRNA genes to generate fragments of different lengths. The proposed methodology presents an alternative DNA extraction procedure faster and more economical than the kits commercially available. A linear normalized calibration curve was obtained between the log of the ratio of the bovine band intensity and the sum of bovine and ovine band intensities versus the log of cow's milk percentage. The method was applied successfully to the detection and quantification of raw, pasteurized, and powdered bovine milk in different cheeses. The proposed duplex PCR provides a simple, sensitive, and accurate approach to detect as low as 0.1% bovine milk in cheeses and to quantify bovine milk in ovine cheeses in the range of 1-50%.     

A novel method for the identification and enumeration of microorganisms with potential for suppressing fungal plant pathogens

This paper describes a method that allowed counting of both the total culturable and antagonistic microorganisms in a given source such as compost. Fusarium solani, used as the test fungus, was spread-plated on quarter-strength (1/4) potato dextrose agar (PDA), its surface was exposed in a laminar flow for 4 h and then another layer (2–3 mm thick) of 1/4 PDA was poured over it, on which an appropriate dilution of a compost sample was spread-plated. Microorganisms in the compost samples appeared first, and were counted as total culturable organisms. Plates were further incubated until F. solani grew through the upper layer of PDA (generally in 4–8 days) and covered the whole plate including most of the microbial colonies, except for a few which had a halo around them. These were counted as antagonistic, and they were isolated and purified for further studies. The population of bacteria in the six specific compost samples (called Biodynamic or BD preparations by organic farmers) ranged from 3.45 log₁₀ (in BD502) to 8.59 log₁₀ (in BD504) per gram of materials. The population of antagonistic bacteria was counted for three of the six compost samples, and ranged from 3.24 log₁₀ (in BD502) to 6.90 log₁₀ (in BD500). Of the 67 bacterial isolates showing a halo that were assembled from different sources, 17 suppressed at least 1 of the 4 plant pathogenic fungi against which these were evaluated using the dual culture method.     

A field trial to evaluate the pollution potential to ground and surface waters from woodchip corrals for overwintering livestock outdoors

Outwintering beef cattle on woodchip corrals offers stock management, economic and welfare benefits when compared with overwintering in open fields or indoors. A trial was set up on a loamy sand over sand soil to evaluate the pollution risks from corrals and the effect of design features (size and depth of woodchips, stocking density, and feeding on or off the corral). Plastic‐lined drainage trenches at 9–10 m spacing under the woodchips allowed sampling of the leachate. Sampling of the soil to 3.6 m below the corral allowed evaluation of pollutant mitigation during vadose zone transport. Mean corral leachate pollutant concentrations were 443–1056 mg NH₄‐N L^?1, 372–1078 mg dissolved organic carbon (DOC) L^?1, 3–13 mg NO₃‐N L^?1, 8 × 10⁴–1.0 × 10⁶Escherichia coli 100 mL^?1 and 2.8 × 10²–1.4 × 10³ faecal enterococci 100 mL^?1. Little influence of design features could be observed. DOC, NH₄ and (in most cases) E. coli and faecal enterococci concentrations decreased 10²–10³ fold when compared with corral leachate during transport to 3.6 m but there were some cores where faecal enterococci concentrations remained high throughout the profile. Travel times of pollutants (39–113 days) were estimated assuming vertical percolation, piston displacement at field moisture content and no adsorption. This allowed decay/die‐off kinetics in the soil to be estimated (0.009–0.044 day^?1 for DOC, 0.014–0.045 day^?1 for E. coli and 0–0.022 day^?1 for faecal enterococci). The mean [NO₃‐N] in pore water from the soil cores (n = 3 per corral) ranged from 114 ± 52 to 404 ± 54 mg NO₃‐N L^?1, when compared with 59 ± 15 mg NO₃‐N L^?1 from a field overwintering area and 47 ± 40 mg NO₃‐N L^?1 under a permanent feeding area. However, modelling suggested that denitrification losses in the soil profile increased with stocking density so nitrate leaching losses per animal may be smaller under corrals than for other overwintering methods. Nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide and methane fluxes (measured on one occasion from one corral) were 5–110 g N ha^?1 day^?1, 3–23 kg C ha^?1 day^?1, and 5–340 g C ha^?1 day^?1 respectively. Ammonia content of air extracted from above the woodchips was 0.7–3.5 mg NH₄‐N m^?3.     

Use of overlap studies to evaluate method changes in water chemistry protocols

Long-term monitoring projects are usually plagued with method changes that occur in the midst of the monitoring record. Such changes can affect the data, resulting in observations of long-term trends that reflect the change in methods rather than the monitored system. This article describes two statistical approaches to evaluate the effect of method changes, illustrated by several examples from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Long-Term Monitoring Project, a study of the effects of acidic deposition on surface water chemistry. Structural regression models or paired t-tests were applied to various overlapping datasets to determine whether statistically significant differences existed between methods. Statistically significant differences between method changes were seen for each of the following: different filter types, a change in anion analysis from colorimetric to ion Chromatographic techniques, and a change in sample collection method from an integrated hose sampler to a Kemmerer sampler. The characteristics under which each statistical approach was applied are discussed, as are considerations regarding calibration of the older portions of the data.     

柑桔测树学参数矫正法比较不同施肥水平对产量的影响

【目的】柑桔树势对果实产量、品质均有很大的影响,以往局限于定性认识,野外试验也未做量化分析,树势差异对试验结果造成的影响难以准确评价。本项研究建立反映树势状况的测树学参数与单株产量的定量关系,进一步采用测树学参数矫正法比较施肥水平对单株产量的影响,为柑桔园合理施肥提供有效的分析方法和数据支撑。【方法】以柑桔为供试作物(品种为弗罗斯特脐橙),黄壤为供试土壤,进行了小区田间试验。试验共设7个施肥水平(f),以施肥量(N 112.50 kg/hm~2,P_2O_5 56.25 kg/hm~2和K_2O 75.00 kg/hm~2)的1.00、1.67、2.33、3.00、3.67和4.33倍设置6个处理,以不施肥为对照。观测了树高(H)、树冠直径(D)、主杆茎周(d)和单株产量(y)。采用测树学观测和回归分析,建立衡量树势状况的测树学参数与单株产量的线性方程,且用于滤除树势差异对产量形成的贡献,矫正树势差异对单株产量(y)的影响。在此基础上,分析不同施肥水平对矫正后单株产量(Y)影响规律,确定最高产量和所需施肥量。【结果】供试脐橙树冠体积与主杆茎周乘积的无量纲参数(DDdH)与单株产量呈极显著线性回归(y=38.35×DDdH+23.72)。矫正前后单株产量变化与施肥量变化之间均呈二次曲线回归,但矫正前回归方程F检验不显著。剔除树势差异对产量的贡献,在均一树势下,矫正后产量与施肥量之间的二次曲线回归的F检验和各项系数的t检验均达到显著水平。依据二次回归方程(Y=–2.44f~2+9.05f+41.09)计算,在氮磷钾施肥水平为N 208.1 kg/hm~2、P_2O_5 104.1 kg/hm~2和K_2O 138.8 kg/hm~2下,最高单产为31 t/hm~2。【结论】在品种、树龄和管理措施一致的前提下,脐橙树冠体积与主杆茎周乘积的无量纲参数与单株产量呈线性回归,利用回归方程可以有效矫正不可目测的树势差异对产量变化的贡献,从而准确分析施肥对单株产量的影响,用于指导脐橙园施肥。建立衡量树势状况的测树学参数与单株产量之间的定量关系,不仅对于果园管理具有重要的现实意义,对于柑桔及其他多年生果树的野外试验观测及数据处理具有借鉴价值。     

基于树冠覆盖视角的乡村人居生态林现状评价与用地潜力分析

林木树冠覆盖是欧美国家城乡森林生态系统评价的最常用评价指标,与我国的林木绿化率、绿地率等指标相比,其具有不分用地权属、导向性明显、更注重绿地质量等突出优点,在我国目前全面推进新农村建设的新形势下,利用该指标对农村人居林生态现状与生态发展潜力进行评估,对于指导今后的农村生态环境保护与建设具有非常重要的理论与现实意义。本文以该指标为核心,选择山东省安丘市凌河镇2009年7—8月25 cm分辨率的航空影像数据,对其乡村人居生态林的结构特征、林木树冠覆盖现状以及潜在树冠覆盖分布等进行了分析。研究结果表明,研究区现实林木树冠覆盖面积为1 088.15 hm2,全镇的树冠覆盖率为17.12%,99%以上为乔木冠层覆盖面积。从林木树冠覆盖的斑块粒级结构来看,树冠覆盖斑块在面积上以巨型斑块为主,但在数量上则以中小型斑块为主。不同行政村的树冠覆盖率评价结果显示,全镇66个行政村中仅有24个行政村树冠覆盖率高于镇域平均水平17.12%。全镇林木树冠覆盖以中等覆盖度等级为主,隶属此等级的行政村占行政村总数的36.36%;其次为极低和低等覆盖度等级,行政村所占百分比分别为21.21%、18.18%;高等树冠覆盖度等级所占比例最少,仅为7.58%。不同树种树冠覆盖面积的比例差异较大,占有比例较高的树种主要有杨树、泡桐、刺槐、苹果、柿树等,其中,杨树的树冠覆盖比例最高,达11.97%,小檗最少,不足0.01%。从未来可绿化的树冠覆盖潜力看,研究区理论潜在树冠覆盖面积共计190.51 hm2,占研究区总土地面积的2.91%,包括滩涂地、裸土地、荒草地及其他未利用地等4类用地类型;理论上全镇未来能达到的最大林木树冠覆盖率为20.12%;扣除保障景观多样性的"10%急需律"后的实际潜力结果表明,实际可利用的林木潜在树冠覆盖率仅2.7%,其中以滩涂地覆盖斑块可增加的面积最多,为59.46 hm2。总体而言,研究区的林木树冠覆盖具有数量偏低、斑块破碎化程度高、类型单一等特点,今后的生态建设应该保护与建设并举,重点加强水系林网、道路林网和农田林网建设。     

Micro‐method to determine iron concentrations in plant tissues using 2,2′ bipyridine

Research often needs to determine iron (Fe) concentrations in plant tissue samples. Current established methods depend on equipment and often require skilled laboratory staff, large sample sizes, and are relatively slow and expensive. We propose an efficient and fast method for measuring Fe concentrations of small rice samples via a microplate reader using sodium dithionite (SDT) as reducing agent and dipyridyl (DPD) as coloring agent. The results show that the method yields results comparable to ICP‐OES measurements which were used as standard method. Different concentrations of the chemicals used were tested for extraction, reducing power, and coloring efficiency, to optimize the method for the range of concentrations to be expected in rice under toxic Fe conditions. Best results were obtained using 500 mM SDT and 10 mM DPD, a sample size of 0.01g dry weight, and Fast Prep as extraction method. A linear calibration curve was obtained for 0 to 100 mg kg^?1 iron within the measured samples. The method proposed here was successfully applied to measure total Fe concentration in oven‐dried, milled plant samples. Applicability of the method for tissues other than rice and suboptimal extraction methods are discussed.     

A potential method to incorporate quantity/intensity into routine soil test interpretations

Abstract

Exchangeable potassium (K), extracted with 1M ammonium acetate, widely used as the measure for plant available K does not estimate the K supplying capacity of the soil. This research was undertaken to quantity the K supplying capacities of some Missouri soils and evaluate a modified K Quantity‐Intensity (Q/I) approach for adaptation into routine soil analysis. The K supplying capacities as analyzed by the modified Q/I and plant removal were measured on the 0–20 cm and 20–40 cm depths of Broseley loamy fine sand (loamy, mixed, thermic Arenic Hapludalf), Mexico silt loam, (fine, montmorillonitic, mesic Udollic Ochraqualf), Waldron clay loam [fine, montmorillonitic (calcareous) mesic Arenic Fluvaquemt] and the 0–20 cm of Sharkey clay (very fine, montmorillonitic, nonacid, thermic Vertic Haplaquet). The dominant clays in the clay fractions were identified by X‐ray diffraction to be composed of montmorillonite and illite. The high linear coefficient of correlation (R₂ = 0.92**) between the potassium buffer capacity index (KBC Index) and cation exchange capacity [CEC, sum of exchangeable Ca, Mg, K, Na, and Neutralizable Acidity (NA)] suggests that KBC Index of soils with similar clay mineral compositions, but different clay quantities, could be estimated from the measured CEC. Plant K uptake was highly linearly correlated with K quantity (Kq, R₂ =0.98**) as measured by the modified Kq/i method. It appears to be possible, using the KBC Index derived from the CEC, to calculate a Kq/i value with a single measurement of the K in equilibrium with 0.01 M CaCl₂. With the modified Kq/i method, and using this approach, a total plant available K model is presented. This modified Kq/i approach offers the opportunity for soil testing laboratories to complete a calculation for total plant available K with only one additional measurement of the equilibrium K in 0.01 M CaCl2. This would facilitate the fine tuning of soil test interpretation by basing K fertilizer recommendations on the quantity of plant‐available K in the soil.     

基于博弈论的可拓评价方法在灌区运行状况评价中的应用

针对目前灌区运行状况评价方法的不足,引入改进的物元可拓评价方法.运用博弈论的综合赋权法将主观权重和客观权重相结合,克服了传统的可拓评价方法中单纯依靠指标数据赋权而忽略了指标自身对评价的重要性等弊端.在等级评定中,通过计算等级变量特征值得到等级所属程度.运用上述方法对东港灌区运行状况进行评价研究,结果与实际情况吻合良好,表明将改进的可拓评价方法运用到灌区的综合评价中是合理可行的.     

A multipurpose tool to evaluate the nutritional quality of individual foods: Nutrimap

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: With obesity and nutrition-related diseases rising, public health authorities have recently insisted nutritional quality be included when advertising and labelling food. The concept of nutritional quality is, however, difficult to define. In this paper we present an innovative, science-based nutrient profiling system, Nutrimap, which quantifies nutritional assets and weaknesses of foods. METHODS: The position of a food is defined according to its nutritional composition, food category, the consumer's nutritional needs, consumption data and major public health objectives for nutrition. Amounts of each of 15 relevant nutrients (in 100 kcal) are scored according to their ability to 'rebalance' or 'unbalance' the supply in the whole diet, compared with current recommendations and intakes. These scores are weighted differently in different food categories according to the measured relevance of the category to a nutrient's supply. Positive (assets) and negative (weaknesses) scores are totalled separately. RESULTS: Nutrimap provides an overall estimate of the nutritional quality of same-category foods, enabling easy comparisons as exemplified for cereals and fruit/vegetables. Results are consistent with major nutritional recommendations and match classifications provided by other systems. Simulations for breakfasts show that Nutrimap can help design meals of controlled nutritional value. CONCLUSIONS: Combining objective scientific bases with pragmatic concerns, Nutrimap appears to be effective in comparing food items. Decision-makers can set their own limits within the Nutrimap-defined assets and weaknesses of foods and reach categorisations consistent with their objectives--from regulatory purposes to consumer information or support for designing meals (catering) or new products (food industry).     

Comparison of a gas detection tubes test with the traditional alkaline trap method to evaluate compost stability

Compost stability is an important parameter of compost quality. Among tests proposed to evaluate compost stability, microbial respiration is one of the better accepted tests. Variations in rates of CO₂ evolution during composting were studied in two pilot pruning waste piles using a windrow composting system. To measure the CO₂ production rate, two methods were compared: the alkaline trap test and gas detection tubes. Both respiration tests indicated increasing compost stability with processing time, but CO₂ evolution rates from the alkaline trap method were higher than values from the gas detection tube method. A first-order kinetic equation was used to describe CO₂ evolution over time. A linear relationship (r=0.81, p<0.01) was found between the two methods. Although both methods could distinguish unstable compost from stable compost, CO₂ detection tubes were easier to use and gave results in a shorter period of time.     

A novel approach to studying the effects of temperature on soil biogeochemistry using a thermal gradient bar

The temperature dependence of chemical reaction rates and microbial metabolism mean that temperature is a key factor regulating soil trace gas emissions and hydrochemistry. Here we evaluated a novel approach for studying the thermal response of soils, by examining the effects of temperature on gas emissions and hydrochemistry in (a) peat and (b) soil from a Sitka spruce plantation. A thermal gradient was applied along an aluminium bar, allowing soil to be incubated contemporaneously from 2 to 18 °C. The approach demonstrated clear differences in the biogeochemical responses of the two soil types to warming. The peat showed no significant emission of CH₄ at temperatures below 6 °C, while above 6 °C, a marked increase in the rate of release was apparent up to 15 °C (Q₁₀ = 2.5) with emissions being similar between 15 and 18 °C. Conversely, CH₄ emissions from the forest soil did not respond to warming. Nitrate availability in the peat decreased by 90% between 2 and 18 °C (P < 0.01), whereas concentrations in the forest soil did not respond. Sulphate availability in the peat decreased significantly with warming (60%, P < 0.01), while the forest soil showed the opposite response (a 30% increase, P < 0.01). Conventionally, thermal responses are studied by incubating individual soil samples at different temperatures, involving lengthy preparation and facilities to incubate samples at different temperatures simultaneously. Data collected on a given thermal response is usually limited and thus interpolated or extrapolated. The thermal gradient method overcomes these problems, is simple and flexible, and can be adapted for a wide range of sample types (not confined to soil). Such apparatus may prove useful in the optimization of management practices to mitigate the effects of climate change, as thermal responses will differ depending on land use and soil type.     

A simple method for the estimation of potential primary pasture productivity over Mozambique

Pasture production not only depends on precipitation amount and distribution patterns, but also on soil type and evaporative demand. The simulation model of Rose et al., developed using improved pastures, is one that accounts for these factors and also takes into account the effect of fertilizer levels on production. From this a simplified model is proposed for Mozambique using as inputs annual precipitation, annual potential evapotranspiration and soil moisture storage capacity. The model is applicable only under negligible soil slope and no bush or tree cover, but can be adapted to varying phosphate fertilizer levels. Estimates from this proposed model show close agreement with experimental data from cleared natural pastures in Zimbabwe and with improved pastures of Townsville stylo in Australia under high phosphate fertilizer levels.     

Methods to evaluate pesticide damage to the biomass of the soil microflora

Respiratory methods to estimate the amount of C in the soil microbial biomass and the relative contributions of procaryotes and eucaryotes to the biomass were used to evaluate the influence of pesticides on the soil microflora. Experiments were conducted with 5 and 50 μg·g^?1 of three fungicides, captan, thiram and verdasan. At 5 μg·g^?1 they caused significant decreases (40%) in the biomass; the organomercury fungicide verdasan also caused a shift from fungal to bacterial dominance. Within 8 days, biomass in captan- and thiram-amended soils had recovered to that of the controls. Although the fungal to bacterial balance was restored in verdasan-amended soils, biomass recovery was not complete. At 50 μg·g^?1 the fungicides caused long-term decreases in the biomass and altered the relative proportions of the bacterial and fungal populations. Verdasan had the greatest effect on soil microbial biomass and composition.