Dust rains in Mallorca (Western Mediterranean): Their occurrence and role in some recent geological processes

Dust rains were observed in Palma de Mallorca (Island of Mallorca, Western Mediterranean) on 253 days in the 22-year period from 1982 to 2003. These and other data from the Western Mediterranean show that dust rains are on the increase. Most occur in the warmest season of the year. Meteorological conditions associated with this phenomenon combine hot advection from the south at low tropospheric levels with southwest winds associated with a depression in the middle troposphere. Dry deposition of dust, often in aggregates 40–300 μm across, is occasionally observed. Analysed samples are silty and mainly composed of quartz and kaolinite. They also contain minor proportions of feldspars and palygorskite, which do not occur as rock-forming minerals in the Balearic Islands. Comparisons of the dusty rainwater samples with soils and recent marine and karstic sediments suggest that dust deposition is an important sedimentary process in the Balearic Islands.     

Long range transport and deposition of mineral matter as a source for base cations

Mineral dust in the atmosphere is generally alkaline, and is a source of base cations in precipitation. Annual emissions of particles from large combustion plants and industrial processes in Europe is of the order of 24 million tonnes, and the calcium content may be as high as 1.4 million tonnes. Emissions from diffuse sources such as agricultural activities, construction and quarrying are much less well known. Emissions of dust from the Sahara have been estimated to more than 200 tonnes, with a calcium content of 3–5%. In northern Europe, airborne concentrations of calcium and the concentration of calcium in precipitation are generally consistent with the anthropogenic emissions and their regional distribution. Transport of dust from Sahara is a major source of base cations in precipitation around the Mediterranean Sea, but the influence diminishes further north. The concentration of calcium in precipitation decreases from south to north and from east to west in Europe. Dry deposition of alkaline particles is not well documented, but may be at least as high as the input by precipitation in regions where there are large emissions. There are still large uncertainty gaps with respect to emissions, transport and deposition of calcium-containing particles.     

Influence of Saharan Dust Transport Events on PM2.5 Concentrations and Composition over Athens

The evaluation of the contribution of natural sources to PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 concentrations is a priority especially for the countries of European south strongly influenced by Saharan dust transport events. Daily PM_2.5 concentrations and composition were monitored at an urban site at 14 m above ground level, at the National Technical University of Athens campus from February to December 2010. The typical dust constituents Si, Al, Fe, K, Ca, Mg, and Ti were determined by wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (WDXRF). Sulfur, a tracer of anthropogenic origin and major constituent of PM_2.5, was determined by both WDXRF and ionic chromatography. The contribution of dust and sulfates in PM_2.5 was calculated from the analytical determinations. An annual mean of 20 μg/m³ was calculated from the mean daily PM_2.5 concentrations data. Twenty-two per cent of daily concentrations of PM_2.5 reached or exceeded the EU annual target concentration of 25 μg/m³. The exceedances occurred during 13 short periods of 1–4 days. Back-trajectory analysis was performed for these periods in order to identify the air masses origin. From these periods, ten periods were associated to Saharan dust transport events. The most intense dust transport event occurred between February 17th and 20th and was responsible for the highest recorded PM_2.5 concentration of 100 μg/m³ where the dust contribution in PM_2.5 reached 96 %. The other dust transport events were less intense and corresponded to less pronounced enhancements of PM_2.5 concentrations, and their contribution ranged from 15 to 39 % in PM_2.5 concentrations. Air masses originated from northwest Africa while the influence of central Sahara was quite smaller.     

Atmosphärische Deposition von Bioelementen in Agrarökosysteme 1. Mitteilung: Deposition von Bioelementen mit dem Niederschlag

Atmospheric deposition of bioelements in agrar-ecosystems 1. Report: Deposition of bioelements by precipitation The bioelement deposition by precipitation was measured in 1977–1981 in Göttingen (Niedersachsen). The bioelement concentrations and the deposited quantities are in good agreement with the results of other authors. The mean pH-values of the collected precipitation water in 1980 and '81 in Göttingen was 4,60. The difference to the pH-values measured by Ulrich et al. (1979) in the Solling is explained by the different geographical locations of the ecosystems in connection with the transport of dust and variations in the composition of the soils of the areas. From the view of plant nutrition and soil acidification the contribution of the deposition by precipitation is insignificant for agriculture. Only about 6% of the typical annual Ca-leaching from loamy soils are caused by the H⁺ input by precipitation. The rest is caused by other influences, especially the soil respiration.     

Dust characteristics and source-sink relations in eastern West Africa (SW-Niger and Benin) and South America (Argentinean Pampas)

In order to quantify dust input and to describe its characteristics under different environmental conditions, and to get information on source-sink relation, dust was collected monthly with bulk deposition samplers (open bucket type) in 2 and 4 m height over a 2—3 years period at different sites in West Africa (SW-Niger and Benin) and in the semi-arid Argentinean Pampas. Dust input, mineralogy (bulk and clay), chemical properties including total element content and particle-size distribution showed a clear seasonal pattern in eastern West Africa. Far-transported Saharan dust in the dry season could be distinguished from local material transported in the rainy season. In Argentina, high sand content of the samples pointed to an important participation of local components in the collected material. This was supported by higher contents of seaborne salts at the coastal sites, and the highest amounts of collected dust at the site of highest wind velocities. Due to the lack of seasonal differences in dust amount and its characteristics, and the aeolian genesis of the Pampas soils, a separation of local material and long-range dust was not possible.     

环洞庭湖区两种典型红土理化特性比较研究

通过环洞庭湖区两种典型成因红土的野外勘察与取样、室内磁化率、粒度、微量元素(Li、Rb、Sr、Ba)分析,进行两种不同成因的红土理化性质的比较。研究结果表明,风成成因的红土粒度比基岩风化成因红土明显较细,风成成因红土以粉砂为主,基岩风化型红土为砂和粉砂为主;两种成因红土受到长江中游地区高温高湿的气候条件影响,磁化率均显示为低值,明显低于黄土高原黄土和长江下游下蜀黄土;微量元素Li/Ba、Rb/Sr比值显示为高值,显著高于黄土高原黄土和长江中下游地区下蜀黄土,表明两种红土均经历了强烈的风化淋溶过程,但基岩风化型红土的风化成壤强于风成成因红土,可能基岩风化型红土经历了更长的风化成壤过程。     

Acid and alkaline deposition in precipitation on the Western coast of Sardinia,Central Mediterranean (40° N, 8° E)

The ionic composition of 53 precipitation samples collected at a coastal site in western Sardinia (Torregrande) was measured in order to determine concentrations and fluxes of the major ions. Precipitation events were sampled over a two year period, Oct'92/Oct'93 and Oct'93/Oct'94. Despite the proximity to the African continent and the detection of Saharan inputs reflected in high pH values and high_nssCa fluxes, there is evidence for acidic rain with over 54% of the events having pH values <5.6. This would suggest long-range transport of anthropogenic inputs, as there is no obvious local source. Within the study period, a marked decrease in median pH is recorded at Torregrande in '93/'94, decreasing from 5.94 to 5.18. This is coupled with an increase in total annual flux of NO₃ from 27 to 63 μg/cm², making the average flux of NO₃ in the two years comparable with that at Capo Carbonara (48 μg/cm²). Particulate fluxes at Torregrande show a marked inter- as well as intra-annual variability, from 70 to 200 μg/cm². Variations of pH seems to be partially due to the total particulate as well as_nssCa fluxes. A statistic of Saharan enriched rain episodes of the two sites showed a peak transport season in April–May and October which is two times greater at Capo Carbonara. Rainfall on the west coast, therefore, appears to be less affected by Saharan dust than rainfall on the southern coast and therefore shows greater signs of acidification due to anthropogenic inputs.     

Long-Term Monitoring Study on Rain, Throughfall, and Stemflow Chemistry in Evergreen Coniforous Forests in Hokkaido, Northern Japan

Long-term study on acid precipitation monitoring at suburban forests in Sapporo city showed that bulk precipitation pH were below 4.8 in recent years. Throughfall and stemflow chemistry for two main coniferous species (Abies sachalinensis and Picea jezoensis) showed different regime for pH and element deposition. The mean annual pH values of throughfall and stemflow in Picea stand were 1.0 to 1.3 units higher than that of rain collected outside the forest. In contrast, mean annual pH of throughfall and stemflow in Abies stand were 0.3 to 0.5 units higher than that of rain. Mean annual inorganic nitrogen input via throughfall and stemflow were estimated 0.41±0.11 gN/m²/yr in Abies stand, 0.44±0.13 gN/m²/yr in Picea stand. Cation input via throughfall, especially for K, in Picea stand was 1.4 times as large as that in Abies stand. Mean annual input of S in both stands was the same level. The possible effects on surface soil properties and nutrient cycling in northern evergreen conifers was discussed.     

THE ORIGIN OF THE RED MEDITERRANEAN SOILS IN EPIRUS, GREECE

To determine the contribution of limestone weathering to soil formation the insoluble residues of six samples of the Pantokraton limestone were separated by treatment with 2M acetic acid at pH 3. The mean insoluble residue content is only 0.15% and to produce a soil depth of 40 cm it has been calculated that about 130 m of limestone would have to be weathered. No correspondence was found between the particle size distribution of the residues and of the overlying red soils, and the high siltrclay ratios of the soils do not indicate prolonged subtropical weathering. The particle size distribution of the soils is akin to that of aerosolic dusts. The dust loading of the atmosphere in the eastern Mediterranean is among the highest recorded, and it is proposed that the soils have developed on dust blown by sirocco winds from the deserts of N. Africa.     

Maize (Zea mays L.) from the Saharan oasis: adaptation to temperate areas and agronomic performance

Saharan maize had been adapted to extreme conditions and could have developed resistance to different stresses. However, genebanks and breeding collections have poor representation from Saharan germplasm and, particularly, from Algeria. This is a preliminary approach to investigate the adaptation and agronomic performance of a representative sample of Saharan maize. We evaluated open-pollinated Saharan populations along with European and American cultivars during 2?years in humid and dry Spanish locations and in Algiers (Algeria). Saharan populations were able to grow in temperate environments, although results were not consistent over years and the genotype-by- environment interactions were very important. Some of the Algerian populations evaluated in 2010 showed promising yield and anthesis silking interval over environments, but none of the Algerian populations evaluated in 2009 were adequately adapted to Spanish conditions. These results suggest that there are wide ranges of variability within Saharan maize for adaptation to temperate conditions, and further evaluations of Saharan maize should identify potential base populations for breeding maize in either side of the Mediterranean Sea. However, this germplasm requires prebreeding for adaptation to temperate conditions in order to be adequate for breeding programs in temperate areas.     

基于DEM的乌鲁木齐河流域降水量时空变化分析

根据乌鲁木齐河流域9个气象站1961-2009的逐月降水量资料,采用三维二次趋势面宏观地理因子模拟与反距离平方加权残差订正相结合的方法,建立全流域年降水量变化倾向率、突变前后降水增量、年和各月降水量多年平均值以及年降水量变异系数等降水量气候要素空间分布数学模型。在ArcGis平台上进行数据栅格化处理,实现基于数字高程模型（DEM）数据的乌鲁木齐河流域降水量时空变化的精细化分布式模拟。结果表明：（1）196l-2009年,乌鲁木齐河流域年降水量平均以15.29mm/10a的倾向率呈显著（P〈0.05）的递增趋势,并于1987年发生了突变性增多,但各地降水量增多倾向率和突变前后降水增量差异明显,总体表现为海拔越高的区域,降水量增多越明显。（2）乌鲁木齐河流域年降水量的空间差异十分明显,流域末端的北部平原降水量不足250mm,向南随着海拔的升高降水量渐增,在海拔1900-2200m的天山北坡中山带出现降水量为550～600m的最大降水带,之后,随着海拔高度的继续上升,降水量又呈减少趋势,至3500m以上的河流源头区域,年降水量不足450m。（3）年降水量变异系数随海拔的升高而减小,即海拔越高的区域降水量的年际间波动相对越小。（4）年内逐月降水量的空间分布格局表现为明显的周期性变化特征。冬季（12-2月）降水较少,各月降水量的高值区主要在低山带和山前洪积、冲击平原,而降水量的低值区在海拔2500m以上的高山带。春季（3-5月）降水量较冬季多,降水量的高值区也逐渐向高海拔山区上移,而降水量低值区则由南部高山带逐渐向北部平原迁移。夏季（6-8月）是一年中降水量最多的季节,各月降水量的高值区逐渐上移到海拔2000-4000m的中、高山带,而降水量低值区在北部平原地带。秋季（9-11月）降水量逐渐减少,最大降水高度带也向低海拔区域移动,而降水量低值区则向中、高山带上移,至11月,最大降水带回复到低山带和山前洪积、冲击平原地带,最少降水带再次上升到2500m以上。     

Transmission of Atmospherically Derived Trace Elements Through an Undeveloped, Forested Maryland Watershed

The transmission of atmospherically derived trace elements (Al, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn) was evaluated in a small, undeveloped, forested watershed located in north-central Maryland. Atmospheric input was determined for wet-only and vegetative throughfall components. Annual throughfall fluxes were significantly enriched over incident precipitation for most elements, although some elements exhibited evidence of canopy release (Mn) or preferential uptake (As, Cr, and Se). Stream export was gauged based on systematic sampling under varied flow regimes. Particle loading appears to contribute significantly to watershed export (> 10%) for only As, Pb, and Fe, and then only during large precipitation/runoff events. The degree of watershed transmission for each trace element was evaluated based on a comparison of total, net atmospheric input (throughfall) to stream export over an annual hydrologic cycle. This comparison indicates that the atmospheric input of some elements (Al, Cd, Ni, Zn) is effectively transmitted through the watershed, but other elements (Pb, As, Se, Fe, Cr, Cu) appear to be strongly sequestered, in the respective orders noted. Results suggest that precipitation and subsequent soil pH are the primary factors that determine the mobility of sequestered trace element phases. To further resolve primary atmospheric and secondary weathering components, the geochemical model NETPATH was applied. Results indicate that minerals dissolved include chlorite, plagioclase feldspar, epidote, and potassium feldspar; phases formed were kaolinite, pyrite, and silica. The model also indicates that weathering processes contribute negligible amounts of trace elements to stream export, indicative of the unreactive orthoquartzite bedrock lithology underlying the watershed. Thus, the stream export of trace elements primarily reflects atmospheric deposition to the local watershed.     

辽西北地区气温和降水变化对气候生产潜力的影响

利用辽西北地区23个气象站1961-2010年逐日平均气温和降水量数据,基于Thornthwaite Memorial模型计算其农业气候生产潜力,通过线性趋势分析、MannKendall突变检验等方法对该区域多年平均气温、降水量和气候生产潜力的时间变化趋势及空间分布特征进行分析,研究农业气候生产潜力对气候变化的响应。结果表明：（1）50a来辽西北地区年平均气温气候倾向率为0.28℃·10a-1（P<0.01）,增温极显著,1987年气温发生突变;（2）50a来辽西北地区年降水量呈波动变化,线性变化趋势不显著,空间分布差异大,降水量呈减少趋势的地区占82.6%;（3）辽西北地区气候生产潜力的时空变化特征与降水量变化相似,其时间变化趋势不显著,气候生产潜力下降的区域占全区的43.5%;（4）气温和降水对农业气候生产潜力的影响作用明显,并以降水的影响为主。气温和降水的组合变化,可以解释气候生产潜力变化的95%以上,暖湿型气候对作物生长最有利,冷干型气候对作物生长最不利;（5）50a来,粮食产量与气候生产潜力的相关性不明显,但两者的波动特点相似,其气候利用率逐年代增加,研究区未来仍存在作物可能增产空间。     

Temporal Patterns of the Wet Deposition of Zn,Cu, Ni,Cd and Pb: The Arcachon Lagoon (France)

We report here the first data set on wet deposition of heavy metals in the southwestern French coastal zone. In this region, there are two major sensitive coastal ecosystems: the Gironde Estuary and the Arcachon Lagoon. Chemical analyses of heavy metals were carried out by ICP-MS. Annual mean concentrations of the dissolved fraction in precipitation were 0.2, 3.4, 4.3, 8.1 and 30 μg L^-1for Cd, Ni, Cu, Pb and Zn, respectively. In terms of annual fluxes, these numbers are of the same order of magnitude as the fluxes measured in southeastern France, but are higher than those measured in western Brittany. When extrapolated to the entire Bay of Biscay, the annual wet dissolved fluxes of Cd, Ni, Cu, Pb and Zn are respectively 7, 110, 140 340 and 1440 t yr^-1. According to available data in the literature, the regional Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn atmospheric fluxes for the Bay of Biscay are of the same order of magnitude as riverine inputs (Loire and Gironde). On a daily or weekly time scale, we observed a strong variability of elemental fluxes: up to 20% of the annual dissolved flux may occur in a rain event shorter than 3.5 days. Although elements display generally parallel variations with time, they sometimes follow independent behaviours (e.g. Pb and Cd), suggesting that they may derive from different geographical and/or pollution sources.     

基于小波分析的西安降水时间序列的变化特征

应用墨西哥帽小波函数进行小波变换,对西安市45a（1961-2005年）来的降水量数据进行分析,计算小波方差,从而研究西安市降水变化的时间及其周期变化特征。通过对西安市的降水时间序列的小波分析,揭示其在不同层次上的降水结构和异常变化规律以及突变特征,预测了西安市四季降水量以及年降水量的变化趋势。特别是通过小波分析的预测结果在2009和2010年出现的关中地区大面积的春旱以及2005年以后出现的秋涝中得到验证,这对认识西安市降水特征以及对西安地区的农业生产和渭河防迅工作具有重要的参考价值和指导意义。45a来,除西安市春季降水量呈显著下降趋势外（P〈0.05）,其它季节和年降水量的线性变化趋势均不显著。但季节降水量和年降水量都存在多时间尺度特征,不同的时间尺度表现为不同的循环交替,大尺度的周期变化嵌套着小尺度的周期变化。总体上表现为由小尺度的震荡剧烈、没有明显规律到大尺度出现明显规律后继续增强或先升后降。     

近50年赣西北大坑小流域径流对降雨的响应

根据赣西北大坑小流域1957—2005年逐日降雨和径流资料,采用时间序列分析法和统计回归分析法,对降雨变化及径流的响应进行了分析。结果表明:（1）大坑小流域1957—2005年平均年降雨量为1 596.3 mm,其年内变化为典型的单峰型曲线,降雨的季节差异非常明显,同时,降雨量的年际变化较大,总体呈增加趋势。（2）大坑小流域1957—2005 年平均年径流深为814.3 mm,其年内变化为单峰型曲线,径流深的季节差异较大,同时,径流深的年际变化较大,总体呈增加趋势。（3）从年径流深与年降雨量的回归分析可知,大坑小流域的降雨量与径流深之间存在密切的相关性。当水文年降雨量增加或减少10%时,年径流深会表现出增加或减少17.8%的正响应;当水文年降雨量增加20%或减少30%时,年径流深会表现出增加35.6%或减少53.4%的正响应。     

基于日雨量的长武县53年来降雨量及侵蚀力演变趋势分析

用长武县1957—2009年日雨量数据,对该地区侵蚀性降雨量及降雨侵蚀力不同时间尺度变化趋势及其协同性进行系统分析,为该区水土流失治理及生态环境建设提供科学支持。结果表明:(1)长武县53a来多年平均降雨量577.8mm,侵蚀性降雨量340.7mm,降雨侵蚀力1 691.2(MJ.mm)/(hm2.h)。3要素变异系数、集中程度逐渐增大,变异系数分别为22.5%,34.4%,43.2%。分别有76.1%,83.4%和85.8%的量集中于夏、秋两季,53.2%,65.5%,70.1%的量集中于7—9月。(2)53a来年降雨量和年侵蚀性降雨均呈不显著减少趋势,受极端降雨事件发生次数增多的影响,降雨侵蚀力呈不显著增加趋势。季节间的变化格局类似,夏、秋两季均呈不显著的增、减趋势,春、冬两季均呈显著减、增趋势。4月、6月呈显著的减、增趋势。(3)对全年降雨量、侵蚀性降雨量及降雨侵蚀力年际变化的贡献程度,季节尺度上均受夏、秋两季尤其夏季影响较大,月尺度上则以7—9月尤其8月影响较大。影响程度在3要素间逐渐增强。53a来3要素的演变特征既有差异,又有巨大协同性。     

黄芩分布区主要气候要素变化趋势时空特征分析

基于国内黄芩主要分布区确定的研究区内94个气象站点的气象观测数据,运用非参数统计检验Mann-Kendall、R/S等分析方法,分析了研究区1957-2007年气温、降水量和日照时数变化趋势的时空特征。结果表明：近50a来,研究区气温表现出显著的上升趋势,降水量、日照时数呈现出减少趋势,日照时数的变化趋势通过了0.01水平的显著性检验;Hurst指数分析表明,研究区未来气温、日照时数都表现出很强的持续性,即与过去近50a的变化趋势基本保持一致,降水量在东北段的减少持续性很强,华北段和西北段变化的持续性相对较弱;研究区气温、降水量、日照时数的变化趋势在空间分布上存在着一定的区域差异。     

黄土高原降雨量的地理地带性研究

黄土高原地区230个气象站年平均降雨量492mm,52%的降雨量集中在夏季,与同纬度地区比较,年降雨总量少,且季节分配集中。降雨量具有明显水平地带性,随纬度升高降雨量按指数率减少,随经度提高降雨量逐渐增加。年降雨量平均水平变化率为60mm/纬度和26mm/经度,不同水平地带内,降雨量愈少,降雨量的水平变化率愈大。降雨量的垂直分布,对山地降雨量与海拔高度关系多为抛物线,年最大降雨量出现的海拔高度为2300～2700m,不同山区降雨量垂直递增率差异较大。对黄土高原地区而言,降雨量与海拔高度呈负相关,海拔低于1800m的地区,降雨量随海拔升高而减少。     

新疆东部地区气候变化及对生态环境的影响

采用线性回归分析以及Mann-Kendall和累积距平等突变检验方法对新疆东部地区1961—2011年的气温和降水两个指标进行研究,从而揭示该地区气候变化的事实及趋势,探讨了其对区域生态环境的影响。研究显示新疆东部地区及各站点年平均和四季平均气温在过去50多年内均呈上升趋势,达0.42℃/10 a,增温率是IPCC第四次报告中全球近50 a增温率的三倍多,高于中国和西北干旱区的增温率,并且在1993年发生增温速度的突变。四季气温中,冬季气温升高对年气温上升贡献最大。新疆东部地区各站点年降水量在研究时段内有增有减,巴里坤站呈较为明显增加趋势,增幅为9.77 mm/10 a,而十三间房站年降水量呈微弱的下降趋势,下降了1.97 mm/10 a,其余各站均有增加趋势,但趋势不显著,并且在1976年发生了增湿突变。新疆东部地区温度升高,降水量增加,总体向暖湿化发展,这种变化对该地区水资源和沙尘暴天气事件等生态环境有重要的影响,具体的影响评估需要进一步研究。