农民管理大型灌区的新模式--访澳大利亚墨累灌溉公司记实和思考

作者对澳大利亚最大的由农民管理的灌溉有限公司进行实地考察。着重对其经营体制、管理功能和效益进行了调查分析，并根据我国实际情况提出几点思考，以供研究农民参与灌区管理体制改革的参考。     

Temporal irrigation performance assessment in Turkey: Menemen case study

During the recent decades, there has been an increasing effort to transfer the management of irrigation schemes from government organizations to non-governmental organizations as decentralization gained momentum and as states started to devolve some of their functions to different groups in the society. Irrigation management in Turkey was also affected by these developments. Since 1993, approximately 90% of the public irrigation schemes were turned over to the locally managed farmer organizations.This study was conducted in the Menemen Irrigation Scheme, to assess the temporal variations of agricultural, water use, environmental and financial performance indicators for the pre-transfer (1984–1994) and the post-transfer (1995–2004) periods.Results showed, after 10 years of transfer, a continued improvement in irrigation performance. The most important finding of the study was a considerable increase in output per unit of land and per unit of water after turnover. Irrigation management transfer (IMT) provided a dramatic achievement in water fee collection efficiencies and more financially self-sustaining organizations. Therefore, it can be safely concluded that the transfer process created more sustainable management for irrigation.     

Agricultural and environmental changes after irrigation management transfer in the Develi Basin,Turkey

Develi Basin is a semi-arid basin in central Turkey where water sustains both irrigated agriculture and an internationally important wetland, the Sultan Marshes. Agricultural and environmental changes in the Develi Basin have occurred since irrigation management was transferred in 1994 from a state authority (DSI) to irrigation associations (Kovalı and Ağcaaşar IAs). In this paper we evaluate the practices of the IAs using extensive data from interviews with farmers and IA officials, as well as data from reports prepared by DSI and the IAs, using comparisons with case studies reported in the scientific literature. Irrigated areas and surface water use in the Develi Basin showed significant fluctuations from 1995 to 2003. The area allocated to high water-consuming plants increased. Maintenance activities became dependent on fee collection rates. Quality of the irrigation water did not changed significantly. Ground-water levels, flow rates from springs, and water levels in the Sultan Marshes all dropped. Overall analyses indicate that the water requirements of the Sultan Marshes have not been met, while water use for irrigation has been effective but not efficient. To reconcile agricultural and wetland water requirements, a basin-wide approach in water planning is recommended. Amounts of water to be allocated to the IAs and wetlands need to be clearly defined. DSI has to monitor canal maintenance by the IAs more closely, and IAs need to be given more responsibilities for future rehabilitation of the canals. Realistic water pricing, increased reliability of irrigation scheduling, higher on-farm irrigation efficiency, and in the long-term, modernization of the irrigation system need to be considered.     

The Paracatu/Entre-Ribeiros Irrigation Scheme in Southeastern Brazil – Features and Challenges in Performance Assessment

A case study is presented on the irrigation performanceassessment of the Paracatu/ Entre-Ribeirosproject, a privately owned/managedcenter-pivot irrigation scheme inSoutheastern Brazil. Seven indicators werechosen (delivery performance, overallconsumptive ratio, sustainability ofirrigated area, power and energyconsumption, operation and maintenancefraction, unit gross economic return, andglobal revenue/cost ratio) to assess theperformance of the scheme in the periodfrom 1997 through 2000. The values obtainedfor these indicators seem to haveadequately expressed the current situationof the scheme by identifying low values ofoverall consumptive ratio, an indication ofthe need for improvement in the watermanagement strategies of individualfarmers.     

Assessing the performance of participatory irrigation management over time: A case study from Turkey

In many countries today, irrigation systems have been transferred to the water user associations (WUAs). Accordingly, it is believed that the performance of the irrigation systems is dependent on the performance of the WUAs.In this study, the performance of participatory irrigation management (PIM) over time is assessed with regard to the Kestel WUA serving a wide area of Turkey's Aegean coast. Data relating to the WUA is obtained from both the State Hydraulic Works and WUAs’ own records. In addition, two surveys have been carried out with the members of the WUA with an 8-year interval between them. Data have been analyzed within the framework of selected irrigation performance criteria and indicators. The non-parametric Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the perceptions of the farmers on the WUA at different survey periods. A Logit model was estimated to evaluate the relationship between the irrigation problems and the level of satisfaction from the WUA.The performance of the WUA with the indicators of utility, productivity, sustainability and financial efficiency was found to be positive; while the performance of adequacy was identified as poor. The farmers were generally satisfied of the WUA's operation, with their level of satisfaction improving over time. On the other hand, the farmers were not fully convinced that they had input with the system management. The initial design of the channel system and its maintenance were identified to be the key factors affecting user satisfaction.Overall, the Kestel WUA may be considered a successful example, thus supporting a promising future for PIM. Yet improved control and farmer education is needed for a superior performance of all indicators; and further enhanced farmer participation in management should be achieved in order to raise the level of farmer satisfaction.     

Can Farmers in Egypt Shoulder the Burden of Irrigation Management?

The Government of Egypt is mandated toplan, construct, operate, manage, andmaintain the water system. However, withthe growing water demands over supplies inthe country, water management became a verydifficult task. This has led Egypt toreform policies, technologies,institutions, and development strategies tomanage water more effectively. One of thesestrategies is the irrigation managementtransfer (IMT) that has been a majorstrategy adopted to encourage farmers toplay a more important role in irrigationmanagement and related water services andalso share the cost of O&M of irrigationand drainage systems. IMT policy islaunched in Egypt as a pilot phase toexpand water users' participation atsecondary levels of the irrigation anddrainage systems. Four pilot areas (5,000–8,000 acre) representing all categories andgeographical locations of agriculturallands of Egypt were selected to implementthis policy.This study was conducted in these pilotareas prior to the start of any IMTactivities to describe, analyze, andexplain farmers' attitudes towardirrigation maintenance and implementationof IMT process. Socio-economicquestionnaires were designed and used asthe main tool for data collection. Afterthe field pre-test of the surveyinstrument, a sample of 240 farmers, 60from each pilot area, was selected usingthe sampling frame of multi-tiered process,and the statistical data analysis was doneusing SpssWin software.The major result of this study is that,without proper education and interface withfarmers, there is widespread resistance tothe idea farmers assuming management andmaintenance responsibilities beyond theon-farm level. It would have to proceedvery cautiously, and yield responsiveresults if it were to survive in the faceof the attitudes the farmers have shown,with their strong belief in the necessityof the role of the government. Meanwhile,farmers expressed great confidence in theIMT process and its objectives.     

Irrigation and Drainage Systems Maintenance: Needs for Research and Action

Irrigation system maintenance hastraditionally played second chair to systemoperations. This relative neglect hassquandered economic benefits and depletedthe value of capital assets. Recentprograms transferring operation andmaintenance responsibility to water usergroups offer an opportunity to redress thisbalance and create a more systematic andsustainable program of system maintenancein transferred systems. This paperidentifies important research needs thatform the basis for an action researchintervention program. The need to linkmaintenance inputs to hydraulic performance isclearly important, as is the need toprioritize inputs in terms of both cost andexpected impact on performance. Thefunding of maintenance is closely linked toasset management so that water user groupscan develop long-term strategies forprioritizing and financing theiractivities. Factors that lead water usergroups to choose between a self-helpstrategy towards O&M and the hiring ofprofessional staff to undertake these tasksalso requires additional research andinvestigation. Finally, the relationshipbetween regular maintenance and frequentrehabilitation needs to be defined and thetwo linked through policy, agreements, andfunding arrangements.     

Facilitating User Participation in Irrigation Management

This paper examines various factors which contribute to performance of water user associations. The capability of collective organizations such as WUAs to develop appropriate rules and to enforce them while keeping the level of conflict low is considered to be the core of organizational performance. We focus on the processes in collective organizations with greater attention to costs of working together. Four factors representing benefits and costs, the rights held by the WUAs, magnitude of expected benefits, external assistance received and leadership explain most of the differences in performance. The prospect of benefits is a necessary condition for individuals to act collectively. But it is not sufficient. Expected organizational costs need to be low. The prospect of costs being low or being absorbed by one or more individuals – either external agents or internal leaders – provides an encouraging environment. Effective internal leadership appears to be essential as it can lead to greater congruence in interests and greater possibility of mutual assurances which are critical for collective action.     

Water Delivery Performance in the Maricopa-Stanfield Irrigation and Drainage District

A Diagnostic Analysis was conducted in the service area of theMaricopa-Stanfield Irrigation and Drainage District in Arizona,USA. The study was an initial step in a managed change process,named Management Improvement Program (MIP), aimed at improvingthe performance of the area's irrigated agricultural system. Partof the Diagnostic Analysis study focused on the performance ofthe irrigation district's water delivery service. The studyidentified areas of high and low water delivery performance,factors contributing to the observed levels of performance, andimplications to on-farm water management. These findings promptedchanges in the delivery system's management. Results from a post-MIP intervention study indicate that the district's waterdelivery performance has improved as a result of those changes,and thus, that the Diagnostic Analysis and MIP methodologies areeffective tools for promoting positive change in a water deliveryorganization.     

Water Pricing and Sustainability of Self-Governing Irrigation Schemes

The sustainability of self-governingirrigation schemes is currently underpressure in many countries as publicfinancial support is decreasing.Furthermore, growing global concernregarding water scarcity means thatefficient water use is essential.Theoretically the choice and implementationof a water-pricing system should play acentral role in achieving this objective,both by recovering water costs and byencouraging farmers to adopt more efficientbehaviour. In the Senegal River Delta newlyestablished water users associations (WUAs)have chosen low water charges, which areaffordable for the majority of farmers butwhich underestimate long-term maintenancecosts. Combined with the difficulty ofcollecting and managing farmers' fees, thischoice has drawn them into a vicious circleleading to scheme deterioration and poorwater service. New alternatives have beendiscussed with them using a simulation toolthat takes into account both the watercosts and the farmers' incomes. Comparedwith the present fixed water charge basedonly on cultivated land, a two-part optionbased both on equipped and irrigated areasensures the recovery of fixed expenses suchas maintenance, while encouraging farmersto intensify their farming systems byadopting double cropping. Neverthelesschoosing a relevant water charge does notensure by itself the sustainability of anirrigation scheme. Combined supportproviding WUAS and farmers with efficientadvice regarding management andorganisational skills should alsocontribute significantly to achieve thisprime objective.     

Irrigation timeliness indicators and application in smallholder irrigation systems in Zimbabwe

Timing of supply of irrigation water is an important measure of water management performance. Yet despite this widely accepted importance of timeliness, few studies have attempted to quantify this performance indicator. This paper suggests a methodology for quantifying timeliness. The indices thus generated are used to compare the performance of some types of smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe. Results indicate that applying measures of timeliness helps to assess water management practices across scheme types.The methodology given in this paper differentiates between timely irrigation deliveries which meet Crop Water Requirements (CWR) and surplus water supplies due to poor timeliness which cannot be used by the crop, hence denoting wastage. The timeliness indices provide more information regarding management practices than simple measures of total water applications over a given season.     

Development and Application of Simplified Asset Management Procedures for Transferred Irrigation Systems

This paper describes the practice of assetmanagement and its application toirrigation system maintenance. It thenpresents the application of a simplifiedasset management procedure for transferredirrigation systems in Albania. In thisapplication, the procedure was introducedto assess, monitor, and regulate, overtime, the condition of government-ownedirrigation infrastructure; management,operation and maintenance of which has beentransferred to Water Users Associations andFederations of Water Users Associations. The paper describes the procedures used tocarry out asset surveys, and to process anduse the data collected. The procedureshave been found to be relevant andapplicable to the conditions experienced inAlbania and a valuable mechanism forfocussing the attention of Water UserAssociations and Federations of Water UsersAssociations on sustaining and enhancingthe condition of the irrigationinfrastructure.     

灌区参与式灌溉管理经济与社会影响评价探讨

参与式灌溉管理是我国近年来在灌溉管理体制上的一项重大改革，它的实施在一些灌区产生了深刻的经济和社会影响，促进了灌区经济的发展和设施的建设，促进了灌区范围内新型社会关系的建立，正确评价其实施的社会和经济效果，评价其实施的社会价值，对于指导和推动灌区改革具有非常重要的意义。针对灌区实施参与式灌溉管理后对灌区经济与社会发展所产生的影响如何评价进行了探讨，提出了评价系统的结构、评价方法，列举了对甘肃省白银市东坪电灌工程参与式灌溉管理经济与社会影响评价实例。     

Low Cost Satellite Data for Monthly Irrigation Performance Monitoring: Benchmarks from Nilo Coelho, Brazil

Irrigation performance indicators can helpwater managers to understand how anirrigation scheme operates under actualcircumstances. The new contribution ofremote sensing data, is the opportunity tostudy the crop growing conditions at scalesranging from individual fields to schemelevel. Public domain internet satellitedata have been used to calculate actual andpotential crop evapotranspiration, soilmoisture and biomass growth on a monthlybasis in the Nilo Coelho irrigation scheme,Pernambuco (Brazil). Satellite interpretedraster maps were merged with vector maps ofthe irrigation water delivery system.Monthly values of a minimum list ofirrigation performance indicators for thevarious service units in the pressurizedNilo Coelho scheme were determined. NiloCoelho is a good performing scheme. Theperformance can be improved further if 25%irrigation water is saved from February toJuly. The benchmark figures from thismodern irrigation system are presented forcomparitive analysis with other systems.The acceptable ranges in space and timeare presented. On average, 65% of thelateral pumping units on a monthly basisfall within the acceptable limits ofirrigation performance. Low cost irrigationperformance data based on low resolutionsatellite images (US$ 1/ha) will help themanagement team to focus on specificpumping units, and discuss alternativeirrigation and farm management strategieswith the stakeholders.     

Diagnostic Analysis of the Maricopa-Stanfield Irrigation and Drainage District Area

Diagnostic Analysis (DA) is a methodologyfor assessing and understanding the performance of anagricultural system. This analysis is thefirst step in a large system change process, known asthe Management Improvement Program (MIP), whoseobjective is to improve the performance of the agricultural system.A group of Federal andstate of Arizona agencies agreed to apply the MIPmethodology in a western U.S. setting. The purpose of theapplication was to test the applicability of the MIPapproach and to refine themethodology. This paper describes how the DAmethodology was applied in the Maricopa-StanfieldIrrigation and Drainage District (MSIDD) area incentral Arizona, USA, and summarizes the lessonsderived from that experience. Specific findings ofthe DA study and the response of MSIDD areaagriculture to those findings are discussed inseparate articles.     

Environmental Regulation and Irrigation Management Transfer: California's Central Valley

This paper highlights the importance ofregulation in irrigation system operationand maintenance and illuminates thedramatic on-going evolution of watermanagement institutions in California'sCentral Valley. The paper does so bylooking at irrigation as a set of servicesexchanged among various actors and regardsregulation as one of several mechanismsthat govern the interaction between theseactors. Regulation has not yet become acentral topic in the global irrigationdebate. The study highlights the influenceregulation, as an external governancemechanism, can have on theinterrelationships among the actorsinvolved in irrigation service delivery.     

More from Less: Policy Options and Farmer Choice under Water Scarcity

In much of the world, fresh water isscarce and getting scarcer. Growing populations, increasing industrialisation, and environmentalconcerns have all put pressure on the water consumedby agriculture. This paper addresses the economicconsequences of a permanent reduction in canal waterfor irrigation. Using detailed cost-of-cultivationdata from the Gediz Basin, Turkey, the key questionsare: How can farmers best respond to reduced surfacewater supplies? How can the canal managementauthorities best distribute this limited water? And,can the demand for water be reduced through input andoutput price policy? These questions are answered withscenario comparisons under several water availability,crop pattern, price and investment assumptions, forthe short and medium time horizons. Keeping productivity high and water use low requirescoordination between farmers and the water managementauthorities. The analysis shows that, in this region,farmers should keep all their land irrigated at loweryield levels, rather than reduce their cropped areas.The canal managers should opt for a short irrigationseason, rather than an extended season with long dryintervals. Sensitivity analysis on a range of pricesindicates that crop, rather than water prices, affectthe efficiency of water use. The scenarios areevaluated using AGWAT, a spreadsheet-based farm-budgetprogram which is simple and widely applicable. Therange of policy choices considered establishes aframework of analysis for other, potentiallywater-short basins, beyond the Gediz or Turkey.     

The Irrigation Management Game: A role playing exercise for training in irrigation management

The development of a role playing exercise for training of irrigation professionals in the management of small holder irrigation schemes is described. The exercise places participants in the position of either agency staff or farmers. As farmers participants are dependent on irrigation water supplies from the agency managed run-of-the-river irrigation system. As agency staff participants are responsible for water allocation between competing demands on the main system. The exercise develops interaction between the participants as they trade in water and negotiate for irrigation supplies.The exercise develops an understanding of the issues involved in managing an irrigation system, though not only on technical matters such as water allocation policy, yield response to water and performance assessment. The exercise also creates an awareness of the whole system, in particular the importance of communication between agency staff and farmers, and between farmers themselves.The Irrigation Management Game is the copyright of the author, Professor Ian Carruthers of Wye College, University of London and consulting engineers Mott MacDonald, Cambridge, UK.     

Irrigation management institutions in transition: a look back, a look forward

The paper explores current dissatisfaction withpast irrigation improvement approaches and examines reasonssuch dissatisfaction is so widespread. It reviews past andcurrent efforts to improve irrigation management in developingcountries and deduces themes with implications for the future. Finally it builds on these themes to speculate on directions inwhich both public irrigation agencies and local levelmanagement institutions will evolve in the future.