Fall lifting and long-term freezer storage of ponderosa pine seedlings: effects on post-storage leaf water potential, stomatal conductance, and root growth potential

Post-storage water relations, stomatal conductance, and root growth potential were examined in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws.) seedlings from high- and low-elevation seed sources that had been lifted either in October or November and freezer stored, or in March, and then grown hydroponically in a greenhouse for 31 days. Seedlings lifted in October had poor root initiation (< 17 new roots per seedling), low predawn leaf water potentials (< -1.5 MPa), and low stomatal conductance (7.10 mmol m(-2) s(-1)) compared with seedlings lifted in November or March. There was little difference in post-storage water relations and stomatal conductance between seedlings lifted in November and those lifted in March. Throughout the 31-day test, seedlings from the high-elevation seed source produced 3-9 times more new roots, had higher predawn leaf water potentials (-0.6 to -0.7 MPa versus -1.1 to -1.6 MPa), and 1.3-5 times greater stomatal conductance than seedlings from the low-elevation seed source. For all seedlings on Day 31, the number of new roots was significantly related to predawn leaf water potential (r(2) = 0.65) and stomatal conductance (r(2) = 0.82). Similarly, the dry weight of new roots per seedling on Day 31 accounted for a significant amount of the variation in predawn leaf water potential (r(2) = 0.81) and stomatal conductance (r(2) = 0.49).     

Elevated temperature and CO(2) concentration effects on xylem anatomy of Scots pine

We studied the effects of elevated temperature and carbon dioxide concentration ([CO(2)]) alone and together on wood anatomy of 20-year-old Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees. The study was conducted in 16 closed chambers, providing a factorial combination of two temperature regimes and two CO(2) concentrations (ambient and elevated), with four trees in each treatment. The climate scenario included a doubling of [CO(2)] and a corresponding increase of 2-6 degrees C in temperature at the site depending on the season. Anatomical characteristics analyzed were annual earlywood, latewood and ring widths, intra-ring wood densities (earlywood, latewood and mean wood density), tracheid width, length, wall thickness, lumen diameter, wall thickness:lumen diameter ratio and mass per unit length (coarseness), and numbers of rays, resin canals and tracheids per xylem cross-sectional area. Elevated [CO(2)] increased ring width in four of six treatment years; earlywood width increased in the first two years and latewood width in the third year. Tracheid walls in both the earlywood and latewood tended to become thicker over the 6-year treatment period when temperature or [CO(2)] was elevated alone, whereas in the combined treatment they tended to become thinner relative to the tracheids of trees grown under ambient conditions. Latewood tracheid lumen diameters were larger in all the treatments relative to ambient conditions over the 6-year period, whereas lumen diameters in earlywood increased only in response to elevated [CO(2)] and were 3-6% smaller in the treatments with elevated temperature than in ambient conditions. Tracheid width, length and coarseness were greater in trees grown in elevated than in ambient temperature. The number of resin canals per mm(2) decreased in the elevated [CO(2)] treatment and increased in the elevated temperature treatments relative to ambient conditions. The treatments decreased the number of rays and tracheids per mm(2) of cross-sectional area, the greatest decrease occurring in the elevated [CO(2)] treatment. It seemed that xylem anatomy was affected more by elevated temperature than by elevated [CO(2)] and that the effects of temperature were confined to the earlywood.     

Moisture and soil texture effects on soil CO2 efflux components in southeastern mixed pine forests

Monitoring soil CO₂ efflux rates and identifying controlling factors, such as forest composition or soil texture, can help guide forest management and will likely gain relevance as atmospheric CO₂ continues to increase. We examined soil CO₂ efflux and potential controlling factors in managed mixed pine forests in southwestern Georgia. Soil CO₂ efflux was monitored periodically in two stands that differed in soil texture in 2001 and 2002, and in six additional stands in 2003. We also monitored controlling factors: soil temperature, moisture, organic layer mass, and A layer depth. Soil moisture and CO₂ efflux varied with soil texture differences among the stands. As expected, soil temperature had a strong influence on soil CO₂ efflux. Soil moisture, organic layer mass, and A layer depth also were correlated with soil CO₂ efflux during periods of water stress, but these relationships differed with soil texture. Forest management activities can alter components of soil CO₂ efflux, including soil carbon pools, temperature, and moisture; understanding the underlying variation of these components and resultant CO₂ efflux over soil types can help guide management toward desired forest carbon balance trends in southeastern mixed pine forests.     

Increased resin flow in mature pine trees growing under elevated CO2 and moderate soil fertility

Warmer climates induced by elevated atmospheric CO(2) (eCO(2)) are expected to increase damaging bark beetle activity in pine forests, yet the effect of eCO(2) on resin production--the tree's primary defense against beetle attack--remains largely unknown. Following growth-differentiation balance theory, if extra carbohydrates produced under eCO(2) are not consumed by respiration or growth, resin production could increase. Here, the effect of eCO(2) on resin production of mature pines is assessed. As predicted, eCO(2) enhanced resin flow by an average of 140% (P=0.03) in canopy dominants growing in low-nitrogen soils, but did not affect resin flow in faster-growing fertilized canopy dominants or in carbohydrate-limited suppressed individuals. Thus, pine trees may become increasingly protected from bark beetle attacks in an eCO(2) climate, except where they are fertilized or are allowed to become overcrowded.     

Auxin-impregnated hygroscopic gel: effects on ponderosa pine and common hackberry seedlings

Greenhouse and field studies were conducted to determine the effects of indole3-butyric acid (IBA) and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) on root development and survival of 3+0 bareroot Pinus ponderosa (Dougl. ex Laws.) and 2+0 bareroot Celtis occidentalis (L) seedlings. In the greenhouse, 100 and 200 ppm. IBA and 10 and 50 ppm 2,4-D were applied to seedlings through a root dip in an auxin hygroscopic gel mix. A randomized complete block analysis of variance indicated that IBA gel treatments increased root volume and root dry weight in hackberry and had no effect on ponderosa pine; 2,4-D gel treatments had detrimental effects on both species. In the field, IBA gel treated ponderosa pine seedlings exhibited improved height and survival relative to the non-treated control seedlings. There was no detectable improvement in survival in the field for hackberry. However, diameter and stem dry weight were lower for hackberry seedlings treated with the gel dip alone.     

Age-related changes in ecosystem structure and function and effects on water and carbon exchange in ponderosa pine

As forests age, their structure and productivity change, yet in some cases, annual rates of water loss remain unchanged. To identify mechanisms that might explain such observations, and to determine if widely different age classes of forests differ functionally, we examined young (Y, approximately 25 years), mature (M, approximately 90 years) and old (O, approximately 250 years) ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex P. Laws.) stands growing in a drought-prone region of central Oregon. Although the stands differed in tree leaf area index (LAIT) (Y = 0.9, M = 2.8, O = 2.1), cumulative tree transpiration measured by sap flow did not differ substantially during the growing season (100-112 mm). Yet when water was readily available, transpiration per unit leaf area of the youngest trees was about three times that of M trees and five times that of O trees. These patterns resulted from a nearly sixfold difference in leaf specific conductance (KL) between the youngest and oldest trees. At the time of maximum transpiration in the Y stand in May-June, gross carbon uptake (gross ecosystem production, GEP) was similar for Y and O stands despite an almost twofold difference in stand leaf area index (LAIS). However, the higher rate of water use by Y trees was not sustainable in the drought-prone environment, and between spring and late summer, KL of Y trees declined fivefold compared with a nearly twofold decline for M trees and a < 30% reduction in O trees. Because the Y stand contained a significant shrub understory and more exposed soil, there was no appreciable difference in mean daily latent energy fluxes between the Y stand and the older stands as measured by the eddy-covariance technique. These patterns resulted in 60 to 85% higher seasonal GEP and 55 to 65% higher water-use efficiency at the M and O stands compared with the Y stand.     

国外松混交林的生长及对土壤肥力的影响

对国外松生态混交林的林分生长及其对土壤肥力的影响进行研究。结果表明，针阔混交林不仅可提高林分生产力，而且对土壤质地、通气性、土壤肥力都比纯林有明显的改善；通过逐步间伐国外松，把达到数量成熟年龄的国外松针阔混交林更替为生产大径材的阔叶林，是国外松生态栽培的一种有效途径；在国外松人工林早期间伐后的林分中引进速生阔叶树种和在灌木林下开天窗营造国外松的试验林，综合效益高。     

测土配方施肥对湿地松生长与养分含量及其土壤肥力的影响

选择4年生湿地松优良家系试验林,通过测土配方施肥,研究其对湿地松生长与叶片、枝条养分含量及其土壤肥力的影响。结果表明:施肥后第2年,土壤全P含量与湿地松树高及胸径生长呈现极显著正相关,其数学模型分别为:y=-5.944 4 x+1.318 9、y=-7.500 0 x+2.700 0;施肥后土壤中速效K含量与叶片中全K含量呈现极显著正相关,其数学模型为:y=0.010 8 x-0.163 3;速效K含量与湿地松树高及胸径生长,其数学模型分别为:y=-0.032 8 x+1.513 3、y=-0.047 4 x+3.002 9;土壤中全N增长与湿地松叶片全N含量增长均呈现显著正相关,其数学模型为:y=7.016 1 x+0.162 1。湿地松平均树高与胸径相较于未施肥的对照组增幅分别达11%与13%以上,其差异达到了极显著水平。     

Growth analysis of responses by planted white pine and white spruce to changes in soil temperature, fertility, and brush competition

A factorial field experiment, located near Chalk River, Ontario, Canada, was used to test the effects of brush competition, fertility, and soil temperature on first and second-season growth of planted white pine and white spruce. Soil temperature, soil moisture tension, and photosynthetically active radiation were continuously monitored to quantify treatment effects. Foliar nutrition was assessed on nursery stock pre-planting and on current and previous foliage age classes after one growing-season. Measurement of biomass components and leaf surface area was carried out after one growing-season. Increasing soil temperature improved the net photosynthetic rate (P_n) of both species in the first growing-season. Relative growth rate (G_r) of both species was positively affected by the soil temperature treatments but, because of changes in carbon partitioning and foliage morphology, was not directly related to P_n. Fertilization and brush control treatments caused compensating adjustments in morphology and biomass allocation that did not affect G_r in the first season. In the second season, environmental conditions changed and brush competition increasingly influenced growth. Despite the changes in environmental conditions during the plantation establishment period, the ability of trees to successfully adjust to environmental stress increased from the first growing-season to the second.     

The effects of soil and air temperature on CO2 exchange and net biomass accumulation in Norway spruce, Scots pine and silver birch seedlings

Soil temperature is proposed to affect the photosynthetic rate and carbon allocation in boreal trees through sink limitation. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of temperature on CO(2) exchange, biomass partitioning and ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi of boreal tree species. We measured carbon allocation, above- and below-ground CO(2) exchange and the species composition of associated ECM fungi in the rhizosphere of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies K.) and silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) seedlings grown in soil maintained at 7-12, 12-15 and 16-22 °C. We found increased root biomass and photosynthetic rate at higher soil temperatures, but simultaneously with photosynthesis rate, higher temperature generally increased soil respiration as well as shoot, and root and rhizosphere respiration. The net CO(2) exchange and seedling biomass did not increase significantly with increasing temperature due to a concomitant increase in carbon assimilation and respiration rates. The 2-month-long growth period in different soil temperatures did not alter the ECM fungi species composition and the below-ground carbon sink strength did not seem to be directly related to ECM biomass and species composition in any of the tree species. Ectomycorrhizal species composition and number of mycorrhiza did not explain the CO(2) exchange results at different temperatures.     

Changes and effects of a natural fire on ectomycorrhizal inoculum potential of soil in a Pinus halepensis forest

A typically mediterranean forest of Pinus halepensis wass tudied. During two years following fruiting fungal species, the number of sclerotia in soil, and the percentages and types of mycorrhizas present were determined. In burned stands ascomycetes were typical carbonicolous while basidiomycetes were strongly reduced. The sclerotia extracted from soils were mainly Cenococcum. The number of sclerotia in burned stands was greater than in unburned stands. Seven types of mycorrhizas were recognized in Pinus halepensis root systems from bioassays: Cenococcum, E-strain, Rhizopogon, Suillus, Tuber, Xerocomus, and one non-identified. Nearly 100% of the roots were colonized by mycorrhizal fungi. Ectendomycorrhizas represented 50–90% of the total number. The predominant type is ectendomycorrhizas formed by ascomycetes included in the E-strain group.     

不同培养基、pH值、水势和温度对2种外生菌根真菌生长的影响

在不同培养基、pH值、水势及温度条件下,研究了沙地樟子松林下2种常见外生菌根真菌松乳菇和高大环柄菇的生长。结果表明,在所选择的培养基上,2种菌株都能生长;高大环柄菇对pH值适应范围较广,在中性条件下生长最好,松乳菇在弱酸性条件下生长较好;温度对菌株生长影响较大,2种菌株最适生长温度范围均为25~28℃;极端水势条件下(-1500kPa),高大环柄菇和松乳菇均不能生长,低胁迫(-170kPa,-230kPa)能促进高大环柄菇和松乳菇的生长。     

CO2 elevation and soil warming reduce cold hardiness of jack pine under photoperiods of seed origin and latitudes of potential migration

New Forests - Climate change is predicted to cause northward migration of boreal tree species. However, the success of such a migration will be determined by trees’ ability to acclimate to...     

Relationships between soil CO2 concentration and CO2 production, temperature, water content, and gas diffusivity: implications for field studies through sensitivity analyses

Soil CO₂ levels reflect CO₂ production and transport in soil and provide valuable information about soil CO₂ dynamics. However, extracting information from soil CO₂ profiles is often difficult because of the complexity of these profiles. In this study, we constructed a simple numerical model that simulated soil CO₂ dynamics and performed sensitivity analyses for CO₂ production rates, soil water content and temperature, and gas diffusivity at the soil surface to clarify the relationships among these parameters. Increased soil surface CO₂ flux did not always coincide with higher soil CO₂ concentrations; increased CO₂ production at shallow depths had little effect on soil CO₂ concentrations, while the opposite may be true for high levels of soil water content. Higher soil CO₂ concentration did not always coincide with greater soil surface CO₂ flux; under high soil water conditions, soil surface CO₂ flux sometimes decreased despite increased soil CO₂ concentration. Increases in soil water content did not always enhance both soil surface CO₂ flux and soil CO₂ concentration. Under high soil water conditions, increases in soil water content could lower soil surface CO₂ flux and increase soil CO₂ concentration. Increases in soil temperature resulted in greater soil surface CO₂ flux and higher soil CO₂ concentration in our simulation (extremely high temperatures were not assumed in this study). Gas diffusivity in very shallow layers did affect, albeit weakly, soil CO₂ concentration. The findings of this study may help direct future observations and aid in the interpretation of their results.     

Growth,water relations,and survival of drought-exposed seedlings from six maternal families of honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa): responses to CO(2) enrichment

Low water availability is a leading contributor to mortality of woody seedlings on grasslands, including those of the invasive shrub Prosopis. Increasing atmospheric CO(2) concentration could favor some genotypes of this species over others if there exists intraspecific variation in the responsiveness of survivorship to CO(2). To investigate such variation, we studied effects of CO(2) enrichment on seedling survival in response to uniform rates of soil water depletion in six maternal families of honey mesquite (P. glandulosa Torr. var. glandulosa). Three families each from the arid and mesic extremes of the species' distribution in the southwestern United States were studied in environmentally controlled glasshouses. Relative water content at turgor loss and osmotic potential were not affected by CO(2) treatment. Increased atmospheric CO(2) concentration, however, increased growth, leaf production and area, and midday xylem pressure potential, and apparently reduced transpiration per unit leaf area of seedlings as soil dried. Consequently, CO(2) enrichment about doubled the fraction of seedlings that survived soil water depletion. Maternal families of honey mesquite differed in percentage survival of drought and in several other characteristics, but differences were of similar or of smaller magnitude compared with differences between CO(2) treatments. There was no evidence for genetic variation in the responsiveness of survivorship to CO(2). By increasing seedling survival of drought, increasing atmospheric CO(2) concentration could increase the abundance of honey mesquite where establishment is limited by water availability. Genetic types with superior ability to survive drought today, however, apparently will maintain that advantage in the future.     

Carbon budget for Scots pine trees: effects of size, competition and site fertility on growth allocation and production

Time series of carbon fluxes in individual Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees were constructed based on biomass measurements and information about component-specific turnover and respiration rates. Foliage, branch, stem sapwood, heartwood and bark components of aboveground biomass were measured in 117 trees sampled from 17 stands varying in age, density and site fertility. A subsample of 32 trees was measured for belowground biomass excluding fine roots. Biomass of fine roots was estimated from the results of an earlier study. Statistical models were constructed to predict dry mass (DW) of components from tree height and basal area, and time derivatives of these models were used to estimate biomass increments from height growth and basal area growth. Biomass growth (G) was estimated by adding estimated biomass turnover rates to increments, and gross photosynthetic production (P) was estimated by adding estimated component respiration rates to growth. The method, which predicts the time course of G, P and biomass increment in individual trees as functions of height growth and basal area growth, was applied to eight example trees representing different dominance positions and site fertilities. Estimated G and P of the example trees varied with competition, site fertility and tree height, reaching maximum values of 22 and 43 kg(DW) year(-1), respectively. The site types did not show marked differences in productivity of trees of the same height, although height growth was greater on the fertile site. The G:P ratio decreased with tree height from 65 to 45%. Growth allocation to needles and branches increased with increasing dominance, whereas growth allocation to the stem decreased. Growth allocation to branches decreased and growth allocation to coarse roots increased with increasing tree size. Trees at the poor site allocated 49% more to fine roots than trees at the fertile site. The belowground parts accounted for 25 to 55% of annual G, increasing with tree size and decreasing with site fertility. Annual G and P per unit needle mass varied over the ranges 1.9-2.4 and 3.5-4.0 kg(DW) kg(-1), respectively. The relationship between P and needle mass in the example trees was linear and relatively independent of competition, site fertility and age.     

Effects of atmospheric CO(2) on longleaf pine: productivity and allocation as influenced by nitrogen and water

Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) seedlings were exposed to two concentrations of atmospheric CO(2) (365 or 720 micro mol mol(-1)) in combination with two N treatments (40 or 400 kg N ha(-1) year(-1)) and two irrigation treatments (target values of -0.5 or -1.5 MPa xylem pressure potential) in open-top chambers from March 1993 through November 1994. Irrigation treatments were imposed after seedling establishment (i.e., 19 weeks after planting). Seedlings were harvested at 4, 8, 12, and 20 months. Elevated CO(2) increased biomass production only in the high-N treatment, and the relative growth enhancement was greater for the root system than for the shoot system. In water-stressed trees, elevated CO(2) increased root biomass only at the final harvest. Root:shoot ratios were usually increased by both the elevated CO(2) and low-N treatments. In the elevated CO(2) treatment, water-stressed trees had a higher root:shoot ratio than well-watered trees as a result of a drought-induced increase in the proportion of plant biomass in roots. Well-watered seedlings consistently grew larger than water-stressed seedlings only in the high-N treatment. We conclude that available soil N was the controlling resource for the growth response to elevated CO(2) in this study. Although some growth enhancement was observed in water-stressed trees in the elevated CO(2) treatment, this response was contingent on available soil N.     

Replacement of wildfire by whole-tree harvesting in jack pine forests: Effects on soil fertility and tree nutrition

Large areas of northern coniferous forests once naturally maintained by stand-replacing wildfires have shifted to an anthropogenic disturbance regime of clearcut harvesting followed by natural or artificial regeneration, with unknown consequences for soil biogeochemical processes. We used a comparative approach to investigate the effects of whole-tree harvesting (WTH) vs. stand-replacing wildfire (WF) on soil C and nutrient availability, and nutrition and growth of the succeeding stand, in jack pine (Pinus banksiana) forests of northern Lower Michigan. We compared total carbon (C), total nitrogen (N), potential N mineralization, and extractable phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) among stands regenerated via WTH or WF in two age classes (4–7 years and 12–18 years). We also measured jack pine foliar nutrition and height growth in these same stands, as well as estimating the contribution of legacy dead wood to ecosystem nutrient capital in young stands. We found some evidence in support of our hypothesis that WTH would leave behind greater pools of soil C and N, but lower pools of P and base cations. However, the differences we observed were confined entirely to surface organic horizons, with the two disturbance regimes indistinguishable when viewed cumulatively to our maximum sampling depth of 30 cm. Estimates of nutrient pools in legacy wood inherited by young jack pine stands were also small in comparison to total soil pools (ranging from 1 to 9% depending on the element), suggesting that decomposition and nutrient release from this material is not likely to result in noticeable differences in soil fertility later in stand development. Similar levels of soil nutrients between WTH- and WF-origin stands were reflected in our measures of jack pine foliar nutrition and height growth, which were both unaffected by mode of stand origin. Results from this study suggest that soil nutrient levels following WTH fall within the natural range of variation produced by WF in these jack pine forests; however, comparison with a similar study on boreal jack pine suggests that latitudinal effects on O-horizon nutrient capital may influence the degree to which WTH matches the effects of WF on soil nutrient availability.     

Effect of three species of bacteria on damping-off,root rot development,and ectomycorrhizal colonization of lodgepole pine and white spruce seedlings

Interactions between three species of bacteria (Burkholderia cepacia, Pseudomonas chlororaphis and Pseudomonas fluorescens), an ectomycorrhizal fungus (Paxillus involutus), and three root pathogenic fungi (Fusarium moniliforme, Fusarium oxysporum and Rhizoctonia solani) were studied. Burkholderia cepacia significantly reduced the in vitro mycelial growth of P. involutus, whereas, B. cepacia, Ps. chlororaphis, Ps. fluorescens and P. involutus reduced the mycelial growth of F. moniliforme, F. oxysporum and R. solani. Culture filtrates of B. cepacia, Ps. chlororaphis, Ps. fluorescens and P. involutus reduced conidial germination and increased the formation of chlamydospores of F. moniliforme and F. oxysporum. Burkholderia cepacia also reduced the formation of ectomycorrhizal short roots by P. involutus on lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and white spruce (Picea glauca) seedlings 2 months after inoculation. However, no significance difference in mycorrhizal short roots was observed after 4 months. The fungicide Anchor (a mixture of carboxine and thiram) significantly reduced root rot severity and increased the survival of lodgepole pine seedlings grown in a growth mix infested with F. moniliforme, F. oxysporum and R. solani. Control of the diseases of white spruce caused by these pathogens was not as successful. Treatment of seeds with either B. cepacia or P. involutus alone significantly increased the survival of seedlings grown in a mix that was inoculated with F. moniliforme and reduced the root rot severity caused by F. moniliforme and F. oxysporum, but not R. solani. Higher seedling survival and lower root rot severity were observed when conifer seeds were concomitantly inoculated with one of the bacterial species, P. involutus and Anchor.