Rotational Grazing Systems and Livestock Grazing Behavior in Shrub-Dominated Semi-Arid and Arid Rangelands

Rotational grazing systems (RGS) are often implemented to alleviate undesirable selective grazing by livestock. At both fine and coarse scales, livestock selectively graze individual plants, patches, communities, and landscapes. Smaller pastures, increased stocking density, and rotation allow managers to constrain livestock movement and determine season and frequency of grazing, potentially limiting selectivity and preventing repeated grazing of preferred plants. However, in arid and semi-arid rangelands, forage growth is limited primarily by precipitation rather than defoliation frequency. When soil moisture is adequate, forage is abundant and defoliation levels are typically low, and repeated, intensive defoliation of preferred plants is less likely than in more mesic areas where more consistent precipitation and soil moisture storage allows animals to establish and maintain spatial hierarchies of grazing patterns. Many southwestern rangelands contain diverse vegetation, which provides quality forage during different times of the year. These spatial and temporal patterns of forage distribution may not be amenable to manipulation with RGS. Tracking data show that livestock often alternate among locations within pasture boundaries and can opportunistically exploit areas with higher quality forage when they are available. Higher stock densities combined with higher stocking rates can increase livestock use of less preferred areas, but overall distribution patterns of intensive-rotational and extensive grazing systems are often comparable at similar stocking rates and distances from water. Management that ensures that grazing of riparian areas does not occur during the critical late summer period may be more beneficial than RGS that periodically defers livestock use throughout the grazing season. In arid and semi-arid shrublands, timely adjustments to animal numbers and practices that improve grazing distribution at regional and landscape scales are more likely to be effective in maintaining or improving rangeland health than fencing and RGS.     

中国北方草地生态系统管理问题与对策

草地具有生态意义、资源意义和生物进化场所及文化意义。北方草地表观表现为"三化",草丛对地面的覆盖力和产量是一般采用的判定指标,缺乏生态系统结构要素和功能受损的评价标准,农田化也是草原被破坏或消失的重要因素。放牧是家畜生产途径,也是草地管理手段。放牧干扰状况包括放牧开始时间、放牧强度、放牧频次和持续时间,放牧要素包括啃食、践踏、口液和失衡营养。载畜量或草畜平衡的方程体系中缺少牲畜生长状态参数,草地管理的一项重要内容是管理草地放养的家畜,发展豆科混合半人工草地,以维护土壤肥力,增加牲畜日粮的粗蛋白含量应该是中国北方草地管理当前与今后一段时期内的重要研究内容。草地管理,即草地生态系统管理是由明确目标驱动,由政策和协议及实践而执行,以对生态作用与过程的理解所需的研究和监测为基础,而保持生态系统组分、结构和功能正常运行的管理。     

建植第1年刈割对黑麦草+白三叶草地杂草空间格局的影响

栽培草地稳定性是近年来草地建植与管理的核心问题之一,其中草地抗杂草入侵是其稳定性的重要表现形式。本研究应用地统计学分析方法,分析了刈割处理下多年生黑麦草(Lolium perenne)+白三叶（Trifolium repens）混播草地杂草生物量空间分布的异质性。结果表明,不同刈割强度下,多年生黑麦草+白三叶混播草地入侵杂草地上生物量空间格局异质化程度及其相关范围变化比较明显。变异函数的基台值(C0+C)在不同刈割强度下的变化表明,在重度刈割条件下,杂草地上生物量空间分布异质性最高(12.530),对照条件下次之(4.751),轻度刈割条件下较低(4.557),中度刈割条件下最低(3.149)。变异函数的相关范围(A0)表明,在重度刈割条件下空间相关范围最大(1 004.1 cm),中度刈割条件下最小(122.1 cm),轻度刈割 (161.9 cm)和对照(219.1 cm)条件下居中。空间变异比分析表明,由空间自相关因素引起的空间异质性占主要部分(50.3%～93.5%)。空间分布格局图(Kriging map)分析进一步显示,不同刈割强度下多年生黑麦草+白三叶混播草地杂草地上生物量格局变化显著。     

Advances in pasture management for animal productivity and health

A wide range of management techniques is available to enhance quantity and quality of forage supply to grazing animals throughout the annual production cycle. Within broad limits, dry matter (DM) production is relatively insensitive to management of defoliation frequency, severity and duration. However defoliation management has effects on feed quality which can be enhanced, in particular, by control of pasture growth in the spring through maintenance of relatively low average pasture masses. Treading damage can have significant immediate and ongoing effects on pasture production and farmers can use a range of management techniques to minimise these. Fertiliser application practices have a potent influence on pasture production and seasonality of that production. Available soil nitrogen is the primary nutrient deficiency limiting production in New Zealand's characteristically grass-dominant pastures. Nitrogen fertiliser usage has increased markedly in recent years, particularly to grow substantially greater amounts of forage during the cool season, and this trend looks set to continue. However, the use of nitrogen fertiliser has important environmental implications. Pasture renewal and forage crop use has also increased in recent years. Care needs to be taken in conducting cost-benefit analyses, selecting the options that best meet the needs, and in establishment and subsequent management practices. Ryegrass (perennial and hybrids) and white clover remain the primary choice for permanent pasture renewal, the availability of safe endophytes having largely alleviated effects of endophyte toxicosis. Special-purpose mixtures are used, especially in dry environments. Italian ryegrasses, brassicas and chicory are common choices for forage crops. A range of management techniques can be used to alleviate deleterious effects of some forages, including ryegrass endophyte toxicosis, facial eczema, and toxins associated with Fusarium fungi. Generally these techniques are not totally effective. More research is required to increase our understanding of these disorders, and in order to develop more effective and reliable management practices.     

An analysis of the fundamentals of grazing management systems

The resting and grazing components of grazing management cycles as practised in South Africa are evaluated from the points of view of objective and effect. While the desirability of resting for seeding and an increase in vigour is recognized, little is known of the optimum duration and frequency of rests in the various types of grazing. The upper limit of camp numbers per group of animals beyond which an increase in resting benefit is only slight appears to be approximately six. While continuous grazing is generally believed to be detrimental to sward composition because of selective grazing, it seems that this effect is due rather to incorrect stocking rates than continuous grazing per se. Rotational grazing does, however, offer a means of attaining higher stocking rates without detrimental effects. High Utilization Grazing and High Production Grazing are two different methods of applying rotational grazing which have different objectives and different effects. The most suitable method to use in any situation depends on the nature of the sward and the reaction of the component species to defoliation. However, both methods require multi‐camp systems for best results.     

Pasture quality and its relation to utilization

The paper evaluates those functions of the grazing‐animal/pasture complex which are influenced by management. The contribution of pasturage to animal production is determined primarily by environment and secondarily by defoliation. In pasture quality evaluation, those approaches which employ both digestibility and intake as basic criteria are generally closely related to animal response. In equating grassland production with animal requirements the determinants of output per animal and output per area must be considered in the perspective of the production system as a whole. The essential influence of grazing method on carrying capacity is stressed and it is suggested that grazing management of natural pasture be based on (i) a knowledge of the contribution of individual species to animal production, (ii) defoliation practice which encourages the most nutritious species and (iii) the introduction of improved pasture species.     

Advances in pasture management for animal productivity and health

A wide range of management techniques is available to enhance quantity and quality of forage supply to grazing animals throughout the annual production cycle. Within broad limits, dry matter (DM) production is relatively insensitive to management of defoliation frequency, severity and duration. However defoliation management has effects on feed quality which can be enhanced, in particular, by control of pasture growth in the spring through maintenance of relatively low average pasture masses. Treading damage can have significant immediate and ongoing effects on pasture production and farmers can use a range of management techniques to minimise these.

Fertiliser application practices have a potent influence on pasture production and seasonality of that production. Available soil nitrogen is the primary nutrient deficiency limiting production in New Zealand's characteristically grass-dominant pastures. Nitrogen fertiliser usage has increased markedly in recent years, particularly to grow substantially greater amounts of forage during the cool season, and this trend looks set to continue. However, the use of nitrogen fertiliser has important environmental implications.

Pasture renewal and forage crop use has also increased in recent years. Care needs to be taken in conducting cost-benefit analyses, selecting the options that best meet the needs, and in establishment and subsequent management practices. Ryegrass (perennial and hybrids) and white clover remain the primary choice for permanent pasture renewal, the availability of safe endophytes having largely alleviated effects of endophyte toxicosis. Special-purpose mixtures are used, especially in dry environments. Italian ryegrasses, brassicas and chicory are common choices for forage crops. A range of management techniques can be used to alleviate deleterious effects of some forages, including ryegrass endophyte toxicosis, facial eczema, and toxins associated with Fusarium fungi. Generally these techniques are not totally effective. More research is required to increase our understanding of these disorders, and in order to develop more effective and reliable management practices.     

青藏高原高山嵩草草甸优势植物营养成分对放牧的响应

以青藏高原高山嵩草草甸优势植物高山嵩草（Kobresia pygmaea）和紫花针茅（Stipa purpurea）为对象,研究不同放牧强度对其营养成分变化的影响。结果表明,不同优势种对放牧响应不同,放牧有利于高山嵩草草甸优势植物钙和磷的吸收,高山嵩草重度放牧下钙与磷含量显著高于适度放牧与对照(零放牧)（P＜0.05）,且适度放牧与对照差异不显著（P＞0.05）。紫花针茅钙含量依次为重度放牧＞适度放牧＞对照,磷含量随着放牧强度的增加,出现先升高后下降的变化趋势;放牧家畜的啃食促进了植物的补偿性生长,放牧粗纤维含量显著低于对照（P＜0.05）;同时放牧增加了高山嵩草草甸优势植物粗脂肪和粗蛋白含量。放牧家畜对草地的影响,加速了牧草-土壤氮循环,促进了牧草对土壤氮的吸收,进而增加了牧草的粗蛋白含量,改善了牧草品质。     

Perception and Management of Spatio-Temporal Pasture Heterogeneity by Hungarian Herders

The goal of our study was to document traditional steppe herders' perception and management of spatial and temporal heterogeneity of forage availability of their seminatural pastures. Ninety-two herders living in the Hortobágy saline steppe, Hungary, Central Europe were interviewed, and participatory observation was used to understand herding and habitat improvement techniques. The herders recognized 47–66 habitat types (mostly grassland types), and listed at least 90 plant species important for grazing. They have a nuanced knowledge of the intra- and interannual variations of forage quality and quantity. They perform very strong and well-planned herding practices. Daily spatial pattern of grazing is, however, often opportunistic and flexible, but has a more-or-less regular year-round cycle, in which marshes and stubbles provide forage in drought periods. Reciprocal learning and continuous communication between the herder and his driving dogs and livestock strongly influence grazing pattern. Herders manage and improve different habitats of their pastures differently by traditional and, less frequently, modern methods. The main method is grazing supplemented by manuring, burning, and removal of spiny weeds. Traditional knowledge of herders could be effectively used in evidence-based conservation and pasture management of European saline steppes; e.g., the reintroduction of some old herding techniques (opportunistic pasture use, grazing of marshes, and burning). Herders' knowledge could also help the fine-tuning and local adaptation of European agri-environmental regulations (e.g., how to balance subsidies for hay-making and grazing in saline steppes). More research is needed, however, on the ecological effects of different traditional grazing techniques, e.g., rotation, manuring, and burning. In general a more complex socio-ecological understanding of the internal and external factors affecting adaptation of the Hortobágy herders to changing environment, society, and European Union policies is needed.     

A Review of Equine Grazing Research Methodologies

Recently, there has been a renewed interest and an increase in published research on equine grazing and pasture management. The objectives of this paper are to review equine grazing research methodologies with an aim to encourage standardized research procedures. This review highlights standard methods used in equine pasture-related research, including use of climate data and soil type; seed bed preparation and grazing management; determining forage nutritive value; defining forage maturity; tracking horse health parameters; evaluating different grazing systems; and future technologies. This review covers in-depth discussions on determining forage biomass yield, forage populations, ground cover, persistence, forage intake, and grazing behavior. Specifically, mechanical harvesting, hand clipping, rising plate meter, and falling plate meter are all methods used to determine forage biomass yield. Frequency grid, point sampling, visual assessment, Natural Resources Conservation Service pasture condition score, and the double Dominant, Abundant, Frequent, Occasional, Rare (DAFOR) scale can be used to track forage populations, ground cover, and persistence of pasture species. Three primary methods have been used when estimating horse forage intake including the difference between pre- and postgrazing herbage mass, the difference in pre- and postgrazing bodyweight, and use of digestibility and fecal output markers. Equine grazing behavior has been described by investigating preference, pre- and post-sward height, and bite and mastication rate. Awareness of key methodologies should encourage movement toward research protocol standardization that will allow for scientific comparisons and application of pasture-related research results across the horse industry.     

Recent progress in the study of behavior and management in grazing cattle

Recent progress in studies concerning behavior of, and management for, grazing cattle are reviewed. Since 1950, much study has been conducted on ‘How’, ‘When’, ‘Where’ and ‘How long’ regarding grazing. After the 1980s, grazing ecology introduced the concept of hierarchy at different spatial and temporal scales, and since then grazing behavior has been investigated on the foraging hierarchy of large grazing herbivores: bite, feeding station (FS), patch, feeding site, camp and home range. From the sequence of activities, FS is grouped within a feeding patch, and movement of grazing cattle has been studied between FSs, feeding patches, feeding sites and between camps. Grazing behavior and production relates closley with defoliation, and grazing management should control both grazing behavior and vegetation according to three rules: planning, operational and adaptation rules. Planning rules relate the stocking rate of cattle; operational rules relate to defoliation; and adaptation rules vary with regional situations. Recent studies on grazing have been carried out in the fields of animal diversity and welfare. Future studies in this field should be conducted on the ecology, neurophysiology and psychology of grazing. Nonlinear analysis will also be significant in this field. Grazing cattle production should also utilize supplementation by roughage and/or grains.     

Production and Environmental Implications of Equine Grazing

Horses' physical and digestive well-being is often enhanced when allowed to graze on pastures. Furthermore, a well-managed pasture can contribute to economic viability. Grazing can however have deleterious effects on the environment if not properly managed. Although equine grazing, defecating, and ground trampling behavior is unique from that of other livestock species, pasture management practices are often based on those derived from cattle grazing. This review summarizes the current knowledge of impacts of equine grazing on pasture quality and environment and identifies gaps where further information is needed to formulate and recommend sustainable grazing methods specific to equine.     

Digestible energy content of pasture species in growing European wild boar (Sus scrofa L.)

The objectives were to determine the apparent energy digestibility of six pasture species frequently grazed by European wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) and to estimate the digestible energy (DE) consumption from pasture by grazing wild boar. Seven diets were prepared; a base diet (BD) which did not contain any pasture species, diets D1 to D5 which included 75% of the BD and 25% of the dried pasture species Lolium perenne (D1), Festuca arundinacea (D2), Agrostis capillaris (D3), Bromus staminius (D4) or Trifolium repens (D5) and D6 which contained 85% BD and 15% dried Plantago lanceolata. Seven purebred European wild boar (initial liveweight 24.4 ± 0.8 kg, average ± SEM) were given access to the diets following a Latin Square design. The animals received each diet for eight days, with faecal sampling on days 6, 7 and 8. The total apparent DE consumption from pasture by grazing wild boar was estimated using previously collected pasture consumption data from wild boar. The digestibility coefficients and DE contents of the pasture species ranged from 0.29 to 0.65, and 5.8 to 12.6 MJ/kg DM respectively, with L. perenne and P. lanceolata having the greatest digestibility coefficients and DE contents. The wild boar were estimated to satisfy between 52% and 142% of their maintenance energy requirements through pasture consumption. Grazing wild boar are able to utilise an important proportion of the energy present in pasture species.     

放牧强度对高寒混播人工草地群落特征及地上现存量的影响

为探讨高寒牧区牧草生长季放牧强度对多年生混播人工草地群落特征及地上现存量的影响,从2003年至2005年在垂穗披碱草(Elymus natans)/星星草(Puccinellia tenuflora)混播草地上开展了牦牛放牧控制试验。结果表明:植被盖度随放牧强度的增加而降低,放牧强度对放牧区植物群落盖度的影响极显著(P<0.01);放牧强度与物种丰富度S、多样性指数H′、多样性指数D(除了第1年)和均匀度指数J′(除了第2年)均呈显著或极显著的二次回归,各放牧区与对照区植物群落的相似性系数与放牧强度成显著负相关(R=-0.9205),说明各放牧区植物群落朝着远离对照群落的方向演替;放牧强度和放牧时间对地上生物量的影响极显著(P<0.01),且随着放牧强度的增加,各处理组同一时期地上生物量逐渐减小。     

Grazing methods and stocking rates for direct-seeded alfalfa pastures: I. Plant productivity and animal performance

A 4-yr study was conducted to determine the effects of two grazing methods (GM) at two stocking rates (SR) on alfalfa pasture plant productivity and animal performance and to ascertain the effect of grazing systems on subsequent performance of steers fed a high-concentrate diet. Eight pasture plots (.76 ha) were seeded in 1988 with alfalfa (Medicago sativa L. var. WL225) and divided into two blocks of four pastures each. Grazing methods consisted of a traditional four-paddock or an intensive 13-paddock system. Pastures were managed to allow a 36-d rest period with an average grazing season of 110 d. The low and high SR were 5.9 vs 11.7, 5.3 vs 10.5, 5.3 vs 7.9, and 5.3 vs 7.9 steers/ha for years 1989 to 1992, respectively. Following the grazing season, steers were placed in a feedlot and fed a high-concentrate diet (81% high-moisture corn, 14% corn silage, 5% protein-mineral supplement) for an average of 211 d. There was no effect of GM on herbage mass, pasture phase ADG, or live weight gain/hectare. Increasing the number of paddocks was beneficial when herbage mass was limited and stocking rate was above 7.9 steers/ha. Increasing SR above 7.9 steers/ha decreased herbage mass and pasture-phase ADG. As forage allowance increased, pasture-phase ADG increased quadratically (R2 = .82, P < .001), reached a plateau, and then decreased. Previous grazing system did not influence the performance of steers in the feedlot or their carcass characteristics. Optimum SR is dependent on herbage mass produced.     

苜蓿放牧地生产性能与管理

苜蓿(Medicago sariva)放牧草地以其成本相对低、营养价值高、家畜生产性能优异而得到生产者的青睐.但用于干草的苜蓿不耐践踏,不适合放牧,而且家畜鼓胀病也限制其利用,因而使之成为苜蓿科研的新方向.有关放牧型苜蓿品种的选育以及家畜鼓胀病的管理研究,笔者将分别在其他文章中阐述.本文主要就苜蓿放牧地的管理(放牧方式、时间和强度)、合理利用及其对不同家畜生产性能的影响,以及目前育成的放牧型苜蓿品种进行综述,以期为苜蓿放牧的管理和利用提供参考.     

不同放牧制度对荒漠草原地上生物量及种间关系的影响

采用围栏放牧控制试验,研究了不同放牧强度和放牧方式对封育9年荒漠草原地上生物量及种间关系的影响。结果显示,1)放牧强度对生长季不同时期牧草地上生物量的影响不同,中度自由放牧小区的牧草地上生物量在整个生长季都高于封育小区;2)环境条件对牧草地上生物量的影响较大,在光热水等资源充足时,自由放牧区3种牧压梯度下的牧草地上生物量均高于封育禁牧小区,当遭遇高温干旱胁迫时,自由放牧区的牧草地上生物量的增长量均比封育禁牧小区低,中度轮牧草场表现出较好的抗胁迫能力;3)放牧能够减小荒漠草原年内牧草地上生物量的时间变异,而其空间变异对不同放牧制度的响应较为复杂,在不同强度、不同方式以及植被生长季的不同时期都有所不同;4)轻度自由放牧不会改变植物的种间关系和群落之间的关系,而重度自由放牧不仅加剧了群落间的资源竞争,还会引起研究区3种群落发生不同程度的逆向演替,中等强度的4区轮牧方式为研究区最优的放牧模式,它一方面减缓了群落界面上的资源竞争,另一方面促进了本氏针茅群落的顺行演替。以上结果表明,合理地调控人类放牧制度能够促进草地生态系统功能,从而起到恢复和保护草原的作用。     

Invertebrate Community Response to a Shifting Mosaic of Habitat

Grazing management has focused largely on promoting vegetation homogeneity through uniform distribution of grazing to minimize area in a pasture that is either heavily disturbed or undisturbed. An alternative management model that couples grazing and fire (i.e., patch burning) to promote heterogeneity argues that grazing and fire interact through a series of positive and negative feedbacks to cause a shifting mosaic of vegetation composition and structure across the landscape. We compared patch burning with traditional homogeneity-based management in tallgrass prairie to determine the influence of the two treatments on the aboveground invertebrate community. Patch burning resulted in a temporal flush of invertebrate biomass in patches transitional between unburned and patches burned in the current year. Total invertebrate mass was about 50% greater in these transitional patches within patch-burned pastures as compared to pastures under traditional, homogeneity-based management. Moreover, the mosaic of patches in patch-burned pastures contained a wider range of invertebrate biomass and greater abundance of some invertebrate orders than did the traditionally managed pastures. Patch burning provides habitat that meets requirements for a broad range of invertebrate species, suggesting the potential for patch burning to benefit other native animal assemblages in the food chain.     

放牧强度对山羊采食行为的影响

南方地区水热条件好,草地资源丰富且放牧家畜种类和数量较多,为充分利用当地草地资源,促进草畜平衡,本试验研究了我国西南地区人工草地不同牧压下山羊放牧行为的变化。试验采用野外群体观察法对2种牧压(重牧H和轻牧L)下山羊放牧行为及其参数进行观测记录。结果表明,2种牧压下放牧山羊采食时间都极显著(P<0.01)大于其他行为时间;鸭茅、黑麦草、白三叶的采食时间分别占总采食时间的29.2%,29.0%,25.4%,3种牧草的采食时间之和极显著(P<0.01)大于杂草的采食时间,但3种牧草之间无显著差异(P>0.05);随牧压增加与时间推移,山羊采食速度逐渐降低,但差异不显著(P>0.05);山羊采食速度与口食量呈现负相关的关系。本研究表明,放牧载畜量作为草地管理手段之一,可用来调控草地组成,增加家畜有效采食量,提高山羊放牧系统的经济效益与当地农民收入。     

Paddock Size and Stocking Density Affect Spatial Heterogeneity of Grazing

The claim that intensive rotational grazing (IRG) can sustain higher stocking rates can be partially explained by more even spatial distribution of grazing such that livestock consume forage from a greater proportion of a pasture. To test the hypothesis that utilization is more even at the higher stocking densities of smaller paddocks, mean absolute deviation (heterogeneity) of utilization estimates by plot was compared in paddocks of sizes and stocking densities representing increasing subdivision from two-paddock deferred rotation grazing (DRG) to 16-, 32-, and 64-paddock, two-cycle IRG. These 70-, 4-, 2-, and 1-ha paddocks were grazed for 7 wk, 4 d, 2 d, and 1 d, respectively, at 32 animal unit days (AUD)·ha⁻¹ during 2000 and 34 AUD·ha⁻¹ during 2001. Within IRG there was no response to the treatment gradient. After one cycle in the IRG paddocks, heterogeneity of use was generally lower than in the DRG paddocks, in both 2000 (3–11% [outlier 18%] vs. 14–19%) and 2001 (9–17% vs. 24–28%). After a second cycle in 2001, heterogeneity in half of the IRG paddocks (17–21%) was nearly as high as the early-grazed (24%), but not the late-grazed (28%), of the DRG paddocks. This lack of a stronger difference between systems was probably due to the fixed two-cycle IRG schedule and lack of plant growth during the nongrazing interval. Across both systems heterogeneity of utilization was strongly positively correlated with paddock size. Because utilization was not severely patchy in the largest treatment, the difference between systems would likely be greater in commercial-scale paddocks. Thus grazing distribution can be more even under intensive than extensive management, but this depends on how adaptively the system, particularly the aspects of timing and frequency, is managed.