Tularemia as a cause of fever in a squirrel monkey

CASE DESCRIPTION: A 3-year-old female squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus sciureus) was examined because of sudden onset of lethargy and fever. CLINICAL FINDINGS: On initial examination, the monkey was weak and febrile and had petechiae on both thoracic limbs. Following collection, blood samples were slow to clot. During the next week, the monkey developed anemia and thrombocytopenia; Francisella tularensis was isolated from blood samples. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: Treatment with gentamicin resulted in the monkey's gradual return to health, but inguinal lymphadenopathy developed after drug administration was discontinued. Francisella tularensis was isolated from a fine-needle aspirate of an enlarged lymph node. Treatment with streptomycin resulted in resolution of infection. By use of biochemical and molecular tests, the microbial isolate was characterized as F tularensis subsp holarctica. Results of a microagglutination assay confirmed that the monkey had developed serum antibodies against F tularensis. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: With timely diagnosis, treatment of tularemia in the squirrel monkey was successful. Francisella tularensis is the cause of a highly infectious zoonotic disease, and infection with this microorganism is enzootic in wildlife throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Tularemia should be considered in the differential diagnosis of febrile disease in animals of any species. Even limited or indirect exposure of humans or other animals to outdoor environments in which reservoir hosts and arthropod vectors are present can lead to transmission of F tularensis. Francisella tularensis is a class A agent of bioterrorism, and all cases of tularemia (regardless of species) should be reported to public health officials.     

Transmission risk of human trichinellosis

Trichinella is a food-borne parasitic zoonoses and human cases are still reported in Europe mainly due to the consumption of pig meat originating from small backyard farms. Infections originating from industrialized pig farming have not been reported for decades in Europe, due to control measures to prevent the transmission of Trichinella from wildlife by indoor housing and good management practices. Therefore, risk-based monitoring programs might replace individual carcass control in industrialized pig farming as described in EU legislation SANCO 2075/2005. Transmission of Trichinella species between wildlife and the risk that may pose to humans via consumption of contaminated pork meat has not been studied quantitatively. One pathway by which human trichinellosis can occur is the rat–pig–human route. To evaluate the transmission risk though this pathway the dose responses of rat, pig, and human were studied. Experimental T. spiralis infection was performed in rats with doses of as few as 10 parasites and the data set was analysed using a newly developed dose response model that describes larvae per gram (LPG). Experimental T. spiralis infection in pig was analysed in a similar way. Furthermore nine published outbreaks of human trichinellosis were analysed to determine the dose response in humans. The risk of human trichinellosis via the rat–pig–human transmission was simulated by the Monte Carlo method. A pair of female and male parasites representing the lowest infection pressure from the environment, led to the probability of human trichinellosis by consumption of 100 g of raw pork meat equal to 5% via the studied rat–pig–human pathway. In the absence of rodent control near the farm, a low infection pressure from wildlife presents a relatively high risk of human trichinellosis via consumption of uncooked pork meat.     

Rapid diagnosis and quantification of Francisella tularensis in organs of naturally infected common squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus)

Francisella tularensis, a small Gram-negative facultative intracellular bacterium, is the causative agent of tularaemia, a severe zoonotic disease transmitted to humans mostly by vectors such as ticks, flies and mosquitoes. The disease is endemic in many parts of the northern hemisphere. Among animals, the most affected species belong to rodents and lagomorphs, in particular hares. However, in the recent years, many cases of tularaemia among small monkeys in zoos were reported. We have developed a real-time PCR that allows to quantify F. tularensis in tissue samples. Using this method, we identified the spleen and the kidney as the most heavily infected organ containing up to 400 F. tularensis bacteria per simian host cell in two common squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) from a zoo that died of tularaemia. In other organs such as the brain, F. tularensis was detected at much lower titres. The strain that caused the infection was identified as F. tularensis subsp. holarctica biovar I, which is susceptible to erythromycin. The high number of F. tularensis present in soft organs such as spleen, liver and kidney represents a high risk for persons handling such carcasses and explains the transmission of the disease to a pathologist during post-mortem analysis. Herein, we show that real-time PCR allows a reliable and rapid diagnosis of F. tularensis directly from tissue samples of infected animals, which is crucial in order to attempt accurate prophylactic measures, especially in cases where humans or other animals have been exposed to this highly contagious pathogen.     

Detection of Leptospira spp. in wildlife reservoir hosts in Ontario through comparison of immunohistochemical and polymerase chain reaction genotyping methods

A total of 460 kidney samples from wildlife (beavers, coyotes, deer, foxes, opossums, otters, raccoons, skunks) were obtained from road-kill and hunter/trapper donations in Ontario between January 2010 and November 2012. The objectives of the study were to detect Leptospira spp. by immunohistochemistry and polymerase chain reaction (PCR), to map presence of leptospires in wildlife relative to livestock and human populations, and to characterize positive samples by sequencing and comparison to leptospires known to affect domestic animals and humans. The proportion of samples that tested positive ranged from 0% to 42%, with the highest rates in skunks and raccoons. Leptospira spp. were present in kidneys of wildlife across Ontario, particularly in areas of high human density, and areas in which livestock populations are abundant. The PCR was too weak in most samples to permit genotyping and examination of the relationship between the leptospires found in this study and those affecting domestic animals and humans.     

Tularemia,plague, yersiniosis,and Tyzzer’s disease in wild rodents and lagomorphs in Canada: A review

Information related to infection of wild rodents or lagomorphs in Canada by Francisella tularensis, Yersinia pestis, other Yersinia spp., and Clostridium piliforme was searched for this study. Reports on tularemia in humans linked to these species came from diagnostic databases, literature, wildlife health specialists, and public health agencies. Tularemia has been diagnosed in 8 species of wild rodent and 2 species in the genus Lepus in Canada. Tularemia occurred in wild animals, or in humans associated with these species, in all jurisdictions except the Yukon and Nunavut. Tularemia was diagnosed most frequently in beaver, muskrats, and snowshoe hares, and although tularemia is closely linked to cottontail rabbits in the USA, it has not been reported in cottontails in Canada. Tularemia in humans was associated with muskrats and hares more commonly than with beaver. Plague was diagnosed in bushy-tailed woodrats in British Columbia in 1988. Based on surveys, Y. pestis may occur enzootically in southern Alberta, Saskatchewan, and British Columbia. Infection with Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Y. enterocolitica has been diagnosed in beaver, muskrats, and snowshoe hares in many provinces. Tyzzer’s disease has been diagnosed in muskrats in British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Ontario, and Quebec and in snowshoe hares in Ontario. Infection with these bacteria is likely much more frequent than indicated by diagnostic records.     

Francisella tularensis survey among ranchers and livestock in western Iran

Tularemia is a zoonotic disease that transmitted to humans and domestic animals by wildlife, especially rodents. There are some evidences of the circulation of F. tularensis in rodents, livestock, human populations, and surface waters in western parts of Iran. In this study, we investigated the exposure of livestock and ranchers to F. tularensis in the endemic regions of western Iran. Blood samples were collected from 289 sheep, 103 cattle, and 51 ranchers in 2018. Animal sera were tested by standard tube agglutination method. The specific IgGs against F. tularensis were evaluated by ELISA in human sera. Moreover, the extracted DNAs from 50 sheep spleen samples were evaluated using TaqMan real-time PCR for the presence of ISFtu2 and FopA genes. All animal sera and spleen samples were negative for tularemia. Of the 51 human samples, two samples were seropositive and one sample showed a borderline status for tularemia. Serologic evidence of F. tularensis in the ranchers but negative results in the livestock indicates different transmission routes in human populations and domestic animals in western Iran. Therefore, drinking contaminated water, contact to wildlife or rodents and arthropod bite should be considered as probable routes in the suspicious areas.     

A Conceptual Model for the Impact of Climate Change on Fox Rabies in Alaska, 1980–2010

The direct and interactive effects of climate change on host species and infectious disease dynamics are likely to initially manifest\ at latitudinal extremes. As such, Alaska represents a region in the United States for introspection on climate change and disease. Rabies is enzootic among arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) throughout the northern polar region. In Alaska, arctic and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are reservoirs for rabies, with most domestic animal and wildlife cases reported from northern and western coastal Alaska. Based on passive surveillance, a pronounced seasonal trend in rabid foxes occurs in Alaska, with a peak in winter and spring. This study describes climatic factors that may be associated with reported cyclic rabies occurrence. Based upon probabilistic modelling, a stronger seasonal effect in reported fox rabies cases appears at higher latitudes in Alaska, and rabies in arctic foxes appear disproportionately affected by climatic factors in comparison with red foxes. As temperatures continue a warming trend, a decrease in reported rabid arctic foxes may be expected. The overall epidemiology of rabies in Alaska is likely to shift to increased viral transmission among red foxes as the primary reservoir in the region. Information on fox and lemming demographics, in addition to enhanced rabies surveillance among foxes at finer geographic scales, will be critical to develop more comprehensive models for rabies virus transmission in the region.     

Epidemiological study of Kabuto Mountain virus,a novel uukuvirus,in Japan

Kabuto Mountain virus (KAMV), the new member of the genus Uukuvirus, was isolated from the tick Haemaphysalis flava in 2018 in Japan. To date, there is no information on KAMV infection in human and animals. Therefore, serological surveillance of the infection among humans and wild mammals was conducted by virus-neutralization (VN) test and indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA). Sera of 24 humans, 59 monkeys, 171 wild boars, 233 Sika deer, 7 bears, and 27 nutria in Yamaguchi Prefecture were analyzed by VN test. The positive ratio of humans, monkeys, wild boars, and Sika deer were 20.8%, 3.4%, 33.9% and 4.7%, respectively. No positive samples were detected in bears and nutria. The correlation coefficients between VN test and IFA in human, monkey, wild boar, and Sika deer sera were 0.5745, 0.7198, 0.9967 and 0.9525, respectively. In addition, KAMV was detected in one pool of Haemaphysalis formosensis ticks in Wakayama Prefecture. These results indicated that KAMV or KAMV-like virus is circulating among many wildlife and ticks, and that this virus incidentally infects humans.     

Fasciola hepatica in wild boar (Sus scrofa) from Italy

Fasciola hepatica is a trematode infecting ruminants worldwide, occasionally reported in a wide range of animal species, including humans. According to the WHO, fasciolosis is recognized as a re-emerging neglected tropical disease, responsible for endemic and epidemic outbreaks in humans. Although the main hosts of the parasite are represented by cattle, sheep and goats, wildlife may be involved in its circulation. Here we firstly report F. hepatica in a wild boar from Italy (southern area) and characterize it both morphologically and molecularly. The nad1 gene analysis of specimens analyzed, revealed a high genetic similarity with those of humans from Iran and Peru, as well as a close phylogenetic relationship to those in ruminants from Brazil, Ecuador and Egypt. Considering the increase in the wild boar populations in urban and peri-urban areas, a potential role of this ungulate in the circulation of this zoonotic trematode is suggested.     

Chlamydial species among wild birds and livestock in the foothills of Mt. Afadjato,Ghana

The members of family Chlamydiaceae have a broad host range and cause many kinds of diseases in humans and animals. Several cases of Chlamydiaceae being detected in atypical hosts have been reported recently. Consequently, cross-species monitoring of Chlamydia in wildlife and livestock is pertinent for public health, animal hygiene and wildlife conservation. In this study, we conducted molecular surveillance of Chlamydia in wild birds and livestock around a small village in the foothills of Mt. Afadjato, Ghana where direct contact between wildlife and livestock occurs. Among 29 captured wild birds and 63 livestock, 5 sheep, 30 goats and 28 chickens, the positive ratios of Chlamydia were 24.1%, 40.0%, 43.3% and 26.9%, respectively. Chlamydia pecorum was detected in wild birds, goats, sheep and chickens. On the basis of the variable domain 2 region of ompA, several samples from different hosts showed identical sequences and were phylogenetically located to the same clusters. In addition, using ompA, C. psittaci, C. abortus and C. gallinacea were also detected in this small habitat. Further genetic and pathogenic analyses of the chlamydial distribution in this area, which represents the interface of wild and domestic animal interactions, may improve our knowledge of their transmission among different hosts.     

Prevalence and Spatial Distribution of Salmonella Infections in the Pennsylvania Raccoon (Procyon lotor)

A study was conducted to determine the prevalence and spatial distribution of Salmonella infection in Pennsylvania raccoons (Procyon lotor), common wildlife mammals known to occupy overlapping habitats with humans and domestic food animals. The Pennsylvania Game Commission provided a total of 371 raccoon intestinal samples from trapped and road‐killed raccoons collected between May and November 2011. Salmonella was isolated from the faeces of 56 (15.1%) of 371 raccoons in 35 (54%) of 65 counties across Pennsylvania. The five most frequently isolated serotypes were Newport (28.6%), Enteritidis (19.6%), Typhimurium (10.7%), Braenderup (8.9%) and Bareilly (7.1%). Pulsed‐field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) analysis of the Salmonella isolates and subsequent comparison to the Pennsylvania Department of Health human Salmonella PFGE database revealed 16 different pulsetypes in Salmonella isolates recovered from raccoons that were indistinguishable from pulsetypes of Salmonella collected from clinically ill humans during the study period. The pulsetypes of seven raccoon Salmonella isolates matched those of 56 human Salmonella isolates by month and geographical region of sample collection. Results from Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and Multi‐Virulence Locus Sequence Typing (CRISPR‐MVLST) analysis corroborated the PFGE and serotyping data. The findings of this study show that several PFGE pulsetypes of Salmonella were shared between humans and raccoons in Pennsylvania, indicating that raccoons and humans might share the same source of Salmonella.     

Rabies in Canada - history, epidemiology and control

Rabies first became evident in Canada during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. However, only a few sporadic outbreaks, mainly in domestic animals, were noted before 1945.

Rabies in foxes spread into the Canadian provinces from the Arctic regions during the late 1940s. The disease gradually died out in most areas except Ontario. A second major outbreak, involving skunks, progressed from North Dakota into the Prairie provinces during the late 1950s and 1960s. Today, the major problem areas in Canada with respect to rabies are southern Ontario, which accounts for 85% of the Canadian diagnoses, and the Prairie provinces where rabies is enzootic in skunks.

Rabies is rare in humans in Canada; however more than 40,000 cases have been reported in wild and domestic animals since 1958. Control of rabies is currently being undertaken through vaccination of domestic animals and wildlife, population reduction of wildlife vectors, and human preexposure rabies vaccination.

     

Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2007

SUMMARY: During 2007, 49 states and Puerto Rico reported 7,258 cases of rabies in animals and 1 case in a human to the CDC, representing a 4.6% increase from the 6,940 cases in animals and 3 cases in humans reported in 2006. Approximately 93% of the cases were in wildlife, and 7% were in domestic animals. Relative contributions by the major animal groups were as follows: 2,659 raccoons (36.6%), 1,973 bats (27.2%), 1,478 skunks (20.4%), 489 foxes (6.7%), 274 cats (3.8%), 93 dogs (1.3%), and 57 cattle (0.8%). Compared with numbers of reported cases in 2006, cases in 2007 increased among dogs, bats, foxes, and skunks while decreases were reported among cattle, cats, and skunks. Increases in numbers of rabid raccoons during 2007 were reported by 11 of the 20 eastern states where raccoon rabies was enzootic, and reported cases increased by 1.7% overall, compared with 2006. On a national level, the number of rabies cases in skunks during 2007 decreased by 1.1% from the number reported in 2006. Texas reported the greatest number (n = 362) of rabid skunks and the greatest overall state total of animal rabies cases (969). No cases of rabies associated with the dog/coyote rabies virus variant were reported. The United States remains free of dog-to-dog transmission of canine rabies virus variants. The total number of cases of rabies reported nationally in foxes increased 14.5%, compared with 2006. Increases in the number of reported rabid foxes were attributable to greater numbers of foxes reported with the Arctic fox rabies virus variant in Alaska, the Texas gray fox rabies virus variant in Texas, and the raccoon rabies virus variant in Virginia. The 1,973 cases of rabies reported in bats represented a 16.6% increase over numbers reported in 2006. Cases of rabies in dogs and in sheep and goats increased 17.7% and 18.2%, respectively, whereas cases reported in cattle, cats, and horses and mules decreased 30.5%, 13.8%, and 20.8%, respectively. In Puerto Rico, reported cases of rabies in mongooses decreased 51.5%, and rabies in domestic animals, presumably attributable to spillover infection from mongooses, increased 25%. One human rabies case was reported from Minnesota during 2007. Although typing of the rabies virus variant in this case was not possible, an investigation of this case indicated a bat as the most likely source of exposure.     

Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter and Salmonella in layer flocks in Honshu,Japan

Campylobacter and non-typhoidal Salmonella are the major causes of bacterial gastrointestinal infections in humans. Although antimicrobial therapy is typically not recommended in many cases of these infections, it may be life-saving in patients with severe symptoms. Since chicken eggs and meat derived from layers are destined for human consumption, we investigated the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of these two bacterial genera in 82 layer flocks at chicken processing plants in Honshu, Japan. Campylobacter was isolated from 77 flocks (93.9%). Resistance to ampicillin, tetracycline, and ciprofloxacin was documented in 42.3 (30/71), 16.9 (12/71), and 14.1% (10/71) of Campylobacter jejuni, respectively. Multilocus-sequence typing identified ST4389 and ST5262 as the most frequent C. jejuni sequence types. In C. coli, resistance to ampicillin, tetracycline, and ciprofloxacin was found in 20.0 (7/35), 20.0 (7/35), and 25.7% (9/35), respectively. The most frequent sequence type in C. coli was ST8292. Erythromycin resistance was not observed among Campylobacter species. Salmonella was isolated from 14 flocks (17.1%). The two most frequent serovars were Salmonella Corvallis and S. Braenderup. Neither S. Enteritidis nor S. Infantis were isolated. Streptomycin resistance was observed in six isolates (26.1%), and all isolates were susceptible to cefotaxime and ciprofloxacin. Thus, chicken eggs and meat derived from layers are possible sources of these bacterial infections in humans. The antimicrobial susceptibility of these isolates was maintained, reflecting restrictions on the use of antimicrobial agents on layers.     

Tularaemia transmitted by ticks (Dermacentor andersoni) in Saskatchewan.

Common wood ticks (Dermacentor andersoni) collected from Saskatchewan Landing Provincial Park, Saskatchewan in the spring of 1982 transmitted a lethal tularaemia infection to four of six rabbits. Francisella tularensis organisms were isolated from tissues taken from the dead rabbits and identified from subcultures using an indirect immunofluorescent antibody assay. One human associated with the animals developed symptoms of tularaemia and, after successful therapy, had a significant increase in titre of specific antibodies to F. tularensis. This is the first time tick-transmitted tularaemia has been reported in Saskatchewan in more than 25 years.     

Genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships between Leishmania infantum from dogs,humans and wildlife in south‐east Spain

Leishmania infantum causes human and canine leishmaniosis. The parasite, transmitted by phlebotomine sand flies, infects species other than dogs and people, including wildlife, although their role as reservoirs of infection remains unknown for most species. Molecular typing of parasites to investigate genetic variability and evolutionary proximity can help understand transmission cycles and designing control strategies. We investigated Leishmania DNA variability in kinetoplast (kDNA) and internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) sequences in asymptomatically infected wildlife (n = 58) and symptomatically and asymptomatically infected humans (n = 38) and dogs (n = 15) from south‐east Spain, using single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and in silico restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analyses. All ITS2 sequences (n = 76) displayed a 99%–100% nucleotide identity with a L. infantum reference sequence, except one with a 98% identity to a reference Leishmania panamensis sequence, from an Ecuadorian patient. No heterogeneity was recorded in the 73 L. infantum ITS2 sequences except for one SNP in a human parasite sequence. In contrast, kDNA analysis of 44 L. infantum sequences revealed 11 SNP genotypes (nucleotide variability up to 4.3%) and four RFLP genotypes including B, F and newly described S and T genotypes. Genotype frequency was significantly greater in symptomatic compared to asymptomatic individuals. Both methods similarly grouped parasites as predominantly or exclusively found in humans, in dogs, in wildlife or in all three of them. Accordingly, the phylogenetic analysis of kDNA sequences revealed three main clusters, two as a paraphyletic human parasites clade and a third including dogs, people and wildlife parasites. Results suggest that Leishmania infantum genetics is complex even in small geographical areas and that, probably, several independent transmission cycles take place simultaneously including some connecting animals and humans. Investigating these transmission networks may be useful in understanding the transmission dynamics, infection risk and therefore in planning L. infantum control strategies.     

Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2006

During 2006, 49 states and Puerto Rico reported 6,940 cases of rabies in animals and 3 cases in humans to the CDC, representing an 8.2% increase from the 6,417 cases in animals and 1 case in a human reported in 2005. Approximately 92% of the cases were in wildlife, and 8% were in domestic animals. Relative contributions by the major animal groups were as follows: 2,615 raccoons (37.7%), 1,692 bats (24.4%), 1,494 skunks (21.5%), 427 foxes (6.2%), 318 cats (4.6%), 82 cattle (1.2%), and 79 dogs (1.1%). Compared with numbers of reported cases in 2005, cases in 2006 increased among all groups except cattle. Increases in numbers of rabid raccoons during 2006 were reported by 11 of the 20 eastern states where raccoon rabies was enzootic, and reported cases increased by 3.2% overall, compared with 2005. On a national level, the number of rabies cases in skunks during 2006 increased by 6.1% from the number reported in 2005. Once again, Texas reported the greatest number (n = 351) of rabid skunks and the greatest overall state total of animal rabies cases (889). No cases of rabies associated with the dog/coyote rabies virus variant were reported. The last identified case of this canine rabies virus variant was identified in March 2004, along the US/Mexico border. With 2006 marking the second year of no apparent transmission of the dog/coyote variant, these findings from surveillance data support the contention that the canine rabies virus variant is no longer in circulation in the United States. Total number of cases of rabies reported nationally in foxes increased 13.6%, compared with 2005. Increases in the number of reported rabid foxes were attributable to greater numbers of foxes reported with the Arctic fox rabies virus variant in Alaska, the Texas gray fox rabies virus variant in Texas, and the raccoon rabies virus variant in Virginia. The 1,692 cases of rabies reported in bats represented a 14.5% increase, compared with numbers reported in 2005, making bats the second most reported rabid animal behind raccoons. Cases of rabies in cats, dogs, horses and mules, and sheep and goats increased 18.2%, 3.9%, 12.8%, and 22.2%, respectively, whereas cases reported in cattle decreased 11.8%. In Puerto Rico, reported cases of rabies in mongooses increased 9.2%, and rabies in domestic animals, presumably attributable to spillover infection from mongooses, increased 20%. Three cases of human rabies were reported from Texas, Indiana, and California during 2006. The cases in Indiana and Texas were attributed to bat rabies virus variants, whereas the case in California was attributed to an exposure to a dog in the Philippines.     

DNA-based detection of Leptospira wolffii,Giardia intestinalis and Toxoplasma gondii in environmental feces of wild animals in Korea

Leptospira, Giardia intestinalis and Toxoplasma gondii infections are reported in humans and animals worldwide, but molecular surveillance of these pathogens in Korean wildlife is still limited. Here, we examined the prevalence of these pathogens in environmental feces of Eurasian otters, leopard cats and raccoon dogs using nested PCR followed by DNA sequencing. G. intestinalis was detected in all of three animals, while T. gondii was detected only in leopard cats. Leptospira wolffii was detected in raccoon dog and Eurasian otter. Our results suggest that these animals can act as a reservoir of these zoonotic pathogens. Consistent monitoring of these pathogens in wildlife is needed to prevent from their infections in humans and livestock in Korea.     

Localized cutaneous infection with Francisella tularensis resembling ulceroglandular tularemia in a cat.

A chronically draining subcutaneous mass was removed from the ventral cervical region of a 6-year-old spayed female Domestic Shorthair cat. The histopathologic diagnosis was severe locally extensive pyogranulomatous and necrotizing cellulitis. Bacterial culture yielded Francisella tularensis subsp. tularensis as the causative agent. Immunohistochemical evaluation of sections for F. tularensis was negative. One year later, the cat was euthanized because of progressive lethargy found to be due to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with pulmonary thromboembolism. No evidence of cutaneous or systemic infection by F. tularensis was found at necropsy. This case appears to be a localized form of tularemia resembling the ulceroglandular form of tularemia in humans and suggests that bacterial culture may be more sensitive than immunohistochemistry in detecting organisms in cases of localized F. tularensis infection.     

Toxoplasma gondii infection in Colombia with a review of hosts and their ecogeographic distribution

Toxoplasma gondii is one of the most prevalent zoonotic protozoan parasites among warm‐blooded animal populations (humans included) around the world, causing multiple clinic manifestations including death in the most severe cases of infection. Due to the versatile life cycle of T. gondii and its diversity of potential hosts, there is a common perception that natural areas and wildlife are highly prevalent reservoirs for the parasite; however, information and reports of the parasite on wildlife populations in Colombia are scarce. Using PRC‐based detection analyses of the B1 gene, we evaluated the presence of T. gondii in 49 native small mammal species (10% of the mammal species of Colombia) from 4 different undisturbed natural habitats. Additionally, to understand the ecogeographical distribution of the parasite in Colombia, we developed a literature search of infection reports including information on the host species, density of records and occurrence patterns (using landcover and ecoregions) in natural, rural and urban areas. Our literature review showed a total of 8,103 reports of T. gondii for Colombia of which 86% were related to humans, and 14% to non‐human mammals and other categories, with just a single report associated to wildlife; additionally, 82% of all reports were associated to urban areas whereas only 18% to rural sites. Based on the negative results for the presence of T. gondii in our PCR‐based analyses and our literature search, we suggest that T. gondii has a synanthropic distribution in Colombia occurring in ecoregions as variable as the xeric scrubs in the northern lowlands and humid montane Andean forests, also we show a lack of information on the parasite relationship with wildlife, a concerning fact given that zoonoses are the leading mechanism for the emergence of infectious diseases.