Tree Adoption and Nursery and Propagation Practices in Smallholder Upland Farms in Inopacan and Isabel, Leyte, the Philippines

This paper examines seedling nursery and propagation practices in smallholder farms in two upland areas in Leyte in the Philippines. The case study areas are relatively remote, little forestry extension has been carried out, and traditional practices can be observed. These practices were examined through a survey of smallholders and observation of forestry activities. It was found that in spite of various constraints and notably the lack of planting materials, farmers are interested in forestry and are adopting some naturally growing trees and producing their own seedlings. To make way to their crops, farmers have removed some naturally growing trees of some particular species on their farms. For the purpose of introducing trees to farms, wildlings are widely used as planting material. Some farmers also collect seeds and treat them in preparation for planting, using methods which differ from those recommended elsewhere by extension agencies, but which are nevertheless highly effective.     

社会林业促进印度林业与乡村经济综合发展

印度开展社会林业的基本经验是:(1)注重近期经济效益,其主要作法是,选用多用途树种,多种树种混交造林和集约经营;(2)积极引进并充分利用国际援助资金。文章还介绍了印度社会林业的实施效果及存在的问题。     

Role of foresters' perspectives in orienting agroforestry programmes

The foresters' perspectives of agroforestry is an important aspect that can influence strategies concerned with agroforestry uptake by the farmers. Keeping this in view the empirical studies of foresters' perspective of agroforestry have gained considerable importance. Present study, therefore, investigates foresters' perspectives on different aspects related to agroforestry. This study was conducted in Mandi district located in Indian Western Himalayan province of Himachal Pradesh. Not only the traditional forest management but also agroforestry training of foresters has remained oriented towards learning silvi-technical (plantation management and nursery management) rather than extension (social) and agricultural aspects. Consequently, there was a felt need amongst foresters for training in extension and agricultural aspects for effective implementation of agroforestry programmes. This provides a window of opportunity for re-orienting their training curriculum towards learning extension (social) and agricultural besides the silvi-technical skills. For effective implementation of agroforestry programmes the manpower requirement, particularly that of extension specialist and well trained agroforesters, of the department needs to be estimated and strategy should be devised to minimise political interference. The study emphasises a need for interaction between foresters and farmers, mechanism for better co-ordination with other departments and absolving agroforesters of their policing role for effective planning and implementation of agroforestry programmes. There were significant variations in the opinion of forestry staff about the effectiveness of various strategies to meet farmers tree-based needs, increase tree cover in the state and expected plantation survival rate. There were significant variations in the opinion of foresters about the different factors discouraging private tree growing but ‘restriction on felling green trees growing on private land and selling them in the market’ was viewed as the most important factor. “Provision of incentives to the villagers for tree growing on private land” was the major factor from the foresters' perspective that will encourage tree growing on private land. As there was a lack of congruence of foresters' perception on majority of issues pertaining to agroforestry, a need to incorporate the uniform understanding of issues pertaining to agroforestry amongst the foresters was emphasised. This study also identifies a need to investigate the perspectives staff of agriculture, horticulture departments for better planning and execution of agroforestry programmes, and their uptake by the farmers.     

Investigation and Analysis of the Lending Needs of Forestry Households in China: Based on Data from Zhejiang,Fujian, Guangxi,and Jiangxi Provinces

As the collective forestry property system in China has developed in recent years, the difficulty faced by forestry households (the main managers of Chinese forests) in securing loans has received extensive attention. To address this problem, we should follow the bottom-up principle and undertake effective measures based on a clear understanding of forestry financing. Based on the results of a questionnaire, this article investigates and analyzes the credit demand in forestry households, lending channels, scaling, time limits, loan usage, and cost structures. Studies have shown that funding deficits contribute to the intense demand for loans. The salient characteristics of foresters’ credit demand indicate that such demand is typically large-scale and of long duration—particularly when compared with the credit demand of common farmers. Loans to foresters are used for production purposes and mainly come from formal financing. The structural dislocation of current forestry loan products has resulted in a demand for forestry farming credit that is difficult to satisfy. Therefore, improving the quality of credit services and optimizing loan product structures would help foresters and the Chinese forestry industry.     

Thriving or Surviving? Forester Responses to Private Forestland Parcelization in New York State

Consulting forester business practices are challenged by significant decreases in the sizes of private forest properties and the changes in landowner values that accompany forestland parcelization. Though researchers have discussed the potential ways entrepreneurial foresters could adapt to these new ownership patterns and landscape dynamics, actual responses by foresters working in parcelizing landscapes are largely undocumented. We conducted twenty in-depth interviews with foresters working in New York State to determine (1) how foresters have experienced parcelization of properties they work with, (2) what challenges are associated with forestry projects on decreasing property sizes, and (3) what kinds of changes foresters are making to adapt to decreasing property sizes. We found that foresters across the state observe decreasing sizes of forest properties and see values of forest owners shifting beyond timber production, although most do not consider these changes to be the most urgent challenges to sustainable forestry and profitable forest consulting. Professional foresters are reacting to parcelization in diverse ways; while some are trying entrepreneurial approaches to reach new clients or offer different services, others are primarily interested in maintaining their traditional practices and roles. These findings indicate that strictly relying on independent entrepreneurial responses by private foresters may not be sufficient to close the gap between the historical role of consulting foresters and the trajectory of modern forest parcels. Additional measures like specialized training and policy changes may also be required to address the management challenges associated with forestland parcelization.     

贵州省社会林业工程技术体系的研究

社会林业技术体系是在前人长期科学研究和广大林农的具体实践中形成的技术，它是经过分析、筛选和组织配套的先进科学体系，并具有一定的生态效益、经济效益、社会效益和推广应用前景的技术，我省在长期的林业实践中，摸索出许多适应当地自然和社会经济条件的森林培育、保护和利用的技术和方法，从而形成了一定的技术模式。本文根据贵州省社会林业工程多年的实践，对其进行归纳整理和总结，围绕工程建设中的热点和难点问题，提出了下一步可供推广的先进成熟的科技成果和先进技术。     

Small-scale planted forests in Zululand,South Africa: an opportunity for appropriate development

Forestry in South Africa is sharply divided between commercially driven private enterprise which controls 1.3 million ha of plantation forests, and government and nongovernment organizations which promote a variety of social forestry programs. One area of crossover is that of small-scale (1–2 ha) commercial woodlots being promoted by private timber companies as an additional source of fiber for their pulpmills, but grown and managed by individual farmers. Inputs, such as plants and fertilizers, as well as expertise in the form of extension foresters, are provided by the company, whereas the farmers supply the land and the labor. The company guarantees to buy the timber at the time of harvest. Under such arrangements, the risk is spread between the farmers and the company; the farmers assume most of the risks of production, and the company takes on the marketing risks. The possibilities for appropriate and sustainable development do exist under such a program, but issues involving both ecological and social sustainability must be addressed. This paper suggests that four key characteristics are needed to achieve appropriate development in Zululand. These characteristics are participation, flexibility, empowerment, and commitment. When compared to the current arrangement, the company would have to make a fundamental paradigm shift to achieve these goals. However, the long-term support of the farmers, and ultimately more fiber in the mills, would be the reward. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

妇女参与和林业发展

妇女与林业有着紧密的依存关系。广大发展中国家的妇女积极地参与了治山治水、植树造林、农林间作、采集运输、加工销售、节柴改灶等与林业有关的活动。文章论述了妇女在林业生产中的地位和作用，介绍了发展中国家的妇女参加林业活动的现状及其限制因素。借鉴国际上有关妇女与农村发展的经验和理论，结合中国的国情，研究妇女在农村发展中的作用十分必要。     

Effect of increasing distance fromAcacia nilotica trees on wheat yield

Planting trees in the cultivated fields of Pakistan is a controversial topic between foresters and agriculturists. Some farmers believe that trees significantly reduce their crop yields; therefore they avoid planting trees in their fields. On the other hand, many foresters claim trees are beneficial for crops. This study was conducted to determine the influence of boundary trees (Acacia nilotica) on the growth and yield of associated wheat crops under irrigated conditions in Punjab, Pakistan. Results indicate that close proximity to trees adversely affected tillers/m², weight/1000 grain and the grain yield of wheat planted up to a distance of 8.5 m from the trees. Plant height and grains/spike were least affected. In general, the growth and yield of wheat improved as distance from the tree increased. Tree size did not affect wheat height, tillers/m², grains/spike or weight/1000 grain. The grain yields were slightly lower near the largest trees (50–54.9 cm DBH trees).     

对林业及其特点与属性的若干思考

通过分析林业及其特点与属性,明确林业的地位及其必要性.并回顾林学的产生背景及其人类经营林业的2种对立理念.     

What Tree Species Work Best for Reforestation? Human Perceptions and Beliefs in Ghana’s High Forest Zone

We identified the perceptions and beliefs that underpin species selection for reforestation among smallholder farmers in the Wassa Amenfi District located in Ghana’s High Forest Zone. Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour as a conceptual framework, we collected perceived outcome beliefs, social referents, and control factors from the farmers with a pre-tested, Likert scaled, structured questionnaire. A Mann–Whitney U test was conducted to test for significance of differences between the responses from farmers already planting trees (PF) and those not planting trees (NPF). We found that NPF were significantly higher than PF in belief strength that tree species that have straight boles, grow fast, and have coppicing abilities are the ideal species for reforestation. We found no significant differences between the farmer groups in their motivation to comply with family members and target market as social referents in species selection; however, NPF were significantly higher in compliance with fellow farmers and landowners. NPF were significantly higher than PF that inadequate planting materials and length of investment are the main control factors, serving as the impediments discouraging NPF from participating in indigenous species reforestation.     

Potential of Community-Based Forest Management to Mitigate Climate Change in the Philippines

Community-based forest management (CBFM) is the principal strategy in managing inhabited ‘forest land’ in the Philippines. It involves the participation of local communities in various forestry activities to achieve sustainable forestry, advance social justice and improve socioeconomic welfare, and promote a stable and healthy environment. This paper analyses the potential benefits of agroforestry farms in CBFM sites to mitigate climate change. The incorporation of trees in farms and landscapes has led to enhanced carbon storage and sequestration. Half a million hectares of agroforestry farms in CBFM sites in the Philippines are estimated to store 25 MtC while sequestering 2.7 MtC annually. Lessons are drawn from three carbon sequestration projects under development using CBFM as the main approach. Income from carbon credits is not sufficient to recover the cost of tree planting. The transaction costs of forestry CDM projects are substantial and could prove to be the greatest barrier to project fruition. Government institutions must find ways to encourage project developers by simplifying rules and regulations for forestry carbon projects. Forest definition must be assessed. Project developers and the government could also explore the voluntary carbon market which is more flexible than the CDM market. Policy and technical studies must be conducted to ascertain the potential of the REDD for CBFM sites in the country.     

Remnant trees and the conservation of biodiversity in Costa Rican pastures

Remnant trees may play an important role in conserving biodiversity within agricultural systems because they provide habitats and resources that are otherwise absent from agricultural landscapes. In order to determine the potential importance of remnant trees for conservation, we surveyed the density and species composition of remnant trees occurring in pastures of 24 dairy farms near Monteverde, Costa Rica. In addition, we conducted interviews with farmers to determine why they leave trees in pastures and how they manage them. In our survey of 237 ha of pastures, we counted 5583 trees of 190 species (mean density of 25 trees/ha). Primary forest trees accounted for 57% of all of the species and 33% of tree individuals. Over 90% of the species are known to provide food for forest birds and other animals. In addition, many of the species are important locally for humans as sources of timber (37%), firewood (36%) or fence posts (20%). Farmers mentioned 19 reasons for leaving trees in pastures. Of these, shade for cattle, timber, fruits for birds and fence posts were most commonly cited. Most farmers were well aware of both the economic and ecological benefits of pasture trees, and were interested in the possibility of increasing tree cover within their pastures. Although the current densities and richness of pasture trees in Monteverde are high, the size distribution indicates that diversity will decrease substantially in future years, both because farmers are harvesting trees and because saplings of primary forest trees are scarce within the pastures. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Social and Ecnomic Values of Urban Forestry：Malaysian Perspective

1 INTRODUCTIONUrban forestry means different things to differentpeople, depending on one’s perspective. Some peopleview urban forestry in terms of economic values,rather than cultural or social values, whereas othersmay perceive it in terms of all three types of values.As such, the management of urban green spaces maybe tailored to suchvalues. To Kuchelmeisterand TREECITY (1998), urban greening and urban forestry aretwo different fields altogether. They referred to urbangreening as t…     

Psychological Factors Influencing Farmers’ Intention to Adopt Agroforestry: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

ABSTRACT

The biophysical characteristics of the farm and farmers’ socioeconomic factors have been used to explain adoption of technologies in Africa. However, agricultural technology adoption requires that we also understand the psychological factors that can encourage or discourage farmer adoption of technologies. The aim of this article is to assess the psychological drivers of farmers’ intentions to adopt agroforestry technologies on their farms. We obtained data from 400 smallholder farmers in the Mt. Elgon region of Uganda. The Theory of Planned Behavior was used as the main framework. Quantitative data were analyzed using structural equation modeling to assess the impact of a set of psychological factors on farmers’ intention to integrate trees in coffee. The intention of farmers to integrate trees in coffee plantations was mainly driven by their evaluation of the benefits of shaded coffee (attitude) followed by beliefs about their own capability (perceived behavioral control). However, social pressure (subjective norm) was insignificant, implying that smallholder farmers tend to deny the influence of other people’s behavior on their actions. Therefore, farmers’ positive evaluation of shading coffee and the perceived capability to overcome tree planting barriers reinforced their intention to integrate trees in coffee. This renders attitude and perceived behavioral control as reliable predictors of farmer tree planting behavior, especially in the context of developing countries.     

Acacia nilotica trees in rice fields: A traditional agroforestry system in central India

Time-tested, indigenous land-use systems can provide valuable information for the design of ecologically sustainable and socially acceptable agroforestry systems. One such traditional system is the growing of Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. Ex Delile trees, locally known as babul, in rice fields of smallholder farmers in Madhya Pradesh State of Central India, an area with subhumid monsoon climate and hot summer. The functional characteristics of the system were collected through participatory rural appraisal involving intensive interactions with farmers in the region during six years, and through a structured-questionnaire survey in 25 villages, involving a total of 200 farm families. The farms had an average of 20 babul trees, ranging in age from <1 to 12 years, per hectare in upland rice fields, the tree-stand density being greater on smaller than on larger farms (>8 ha). Over a ten year rotation period, the trees provide a variety of products such as fuelwood (30 kg/tree), brushwood for fencing (4 kg/tree), small timber for farm implements and furniture (0.2 cu.m), and non-timber products such as gum and seeds. The babul + rice system was estimated to have a benefit/cost (B/C) ratio of 1.47 and an internal rate of return (IRR) of 33% at 12% annual discount rate during a ten-year period, though at a low level of income. Babul trees account for nearly 10% of the annual farm income of smallholder farmers (<2 ha). By practising the agroforestry (rice + babul) system, farmers get higher cash returns on a short-term (10-year) harvest cycle of trees, and the labour input (both family- and hired) on farms was distributed more uniformly throughout the year than in rice monoculture. Purchased inputs are seldom used in the system. The ease of management of the system, the self-generating and robust nature of the tree and the multiple products and services it provides, and easy marketability of the products are the major factors that encourage farmers to adopt the system. Furthermore, the farmers have secure ownership rights to their land, so that they are interested in long-term measures such as tree plantings on their farms. In spite of its long history and tradition as a sustainable approach to land use, the system has not attracted the attention of development agencies. More detailed investigations on its social, economic, and cultural attributes are warranted to not only improve this system, but provide insights into farmer adoption of agroforestry innovations.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

河南省林业信息服务的调查与分析

“十一五”期间,河南省积极推进林业信息服务工作,取得一定成效。但是林农对河南省林业信息服务的评价不是很高,林业信息服务存在着共享程度低、基础建设薄弱等问题,今后需要明确林农需求,为林农提供更好的林业信息服务。     

社会林业工程研究初探

记述了社会林业产生和发展的历史过程和我国及湖南省社会林业的发展、研究现状。根据国内外社会林业研究的现状，提出了我省社会林业工程的初步研究方向。     

Farm Level Tree Planting in Pakistan: The Role of Farmers’ Perceptions and Attitudes

The low proportion of forested land and continuing degradation of existing forest cover are serious threats to the sustainability of forestry in Pakistan. Farm forestry has been identified as a feasible solution, particularly in the plain areas. Applying the Theory of Planned Behaviour in a survey of 124 farmers in Dera Ismail Khan district of Pakistan’s North West Frontier Province showed that farmers’ willingness to grow trees on their farms is a function of their attitudes towards the advantages and disadvantages of growing trees, their perception of the opinions of salient referents and factors that encourage and discourage farm level tree planting. Farmers viewed farm forestry as economically beneficial and environmentally friendly. Tree planting was perceived as increasing income, providing wood for fuel and furniture, controlling erosion and pollution and providing shade for humans and animals. Farmers saw hindrance in agricultural operations and the harbouring of insects, pests and diseases as negative impacts of tree planting; however, these were outweighed by their perceptions of positive impacts. Tree growing decisions of farmers were influenced by the opinions of family members, owners/tenants, fellow farmers and village elders. The factors that significantly predicted farm level tree planting were availability of barren land, lack of markets, lack of nurseries and damage caused by animals and humans. Farm forestry programmes are more likely to be successful if they acknowledge and address the factors which underlie farmers’ reasons for planting or not planting trees.     

Identifying important biophysical and social determinants of on-farm tree growing in subsistence-based traditional agroforestry systems

Many expert-designed agroforestry projects enunciated in 1970s around the world, particularly in the developing countries, had uneven success due to inadequate adoption or abandonment after adoption. There are many empirical studies on factors affecting on-farm tree cultivation mainly where expert-designed agroforestry programmes were introduced but lacking in case of traditional agroforestry. Moreover, the concern to identify key factors influencing on-farm tree growing is gaining importance. The present study identifies key factors in on-farm tree growing based on investigation of traditional agroforestry using logistic regression approach. The study is based on household survey of 401 households located in Indian Western Himalaya. The factors affecting on-farm tree growing were grouped into: biophysical (included land use and infrastructural aspects) and social. Models predicting on-farm tree growing for each category were developed and key factors affecting on-farm tree growing in the respective category were identified. A composite model was also developed by combining biophysical and social factors. In the present study, farm size, agroclimatic zone, soil fertility, mobility and importance of tree for future generations respectively were the key factors which influenced tree growing. In contrast to many previous studies which considered either biophysical or social factors, the composite model in the present study reveals that both biophysical and social factors are simultaneously important in motivating the farmers to grow trees on their farms in traditional agroforestry. Moreover, the present study open vistas for using farmers’ experience and knowledge of adoption of agroforestry to stimulate on-farm tree growing. The wider implication of the study is that biophysical as well as social variables should be considered together in designing suitable agroforestry systems in various parts of the world.