The role of indigenous trees for the conservation of biocultural diversity in traditional agroforestry land use systems: The Bungoma case study: In-situ conservation of indigenous tree species

In order to precisely assess the role of agroforestry for the conservation of (agro-)biological diversity there is a need to adjust sampling methods used in plant sociology. This study is on the contribution of agroforestry land use to the in-situ conservation of indigenous trees within a typical East-African smallholder farming system in Western Kenya. A modified approach to measuring species richness and abundance is presented. The selection of tree-rich structures was done according to management patterns rather than considering syntaxonomic classifications from the vegetation science point of view. This approach, which is better suited to the strongly human-influenced vegetation of agroecosystems, employs between-management unit diversity measures to help evaluate abundance and constancy of species in particular management units. The predominant off-farm vegetation patterns are riverine forests, rocky hillsides, hedgerows, wooded grassland relicts, woodlands or colline forest relicts and tree groves whereas the noticeable tree-rich on-farm management units are homegardens, homesteads, life fences, coffee- and banana-groves and annual cropping fields. 98% out of all indigenous tree species known from Bungoma, occur in off-farm lands. 53% of the indigenous tree species occur in tree rich on-farm management units while 47% of the indigenous trees are dependent on the maintenance of off-farm lands. Hedgerows embody the most promising secondary vegetation structure that shows ample potential to accommodate a wide range of indigenous perennial species outside the natural vegetation formations. The pattern of distribution of various vegetation structures, and the mixture with diverse tree-based on-farm plots are interesting features in regard to floristic and eco-diversity on a landscape level. In this respect, three areas that show different population densities and distinct agro-historical conditions were compared. In regions of particular high population density the degree of association of various functional land use forms and woodland structures – each characterised by its own floristic make-up – is comparatively high. In contrast, in regions with less population but that were settled at a later date, one encounters fewer stands of woody plants with lower numbers of species. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Agroforestry in the management of sloping lands in Asia and the Pacific

Steeply sloping lands are widespread in the tropics. An estimated 500 million people practice subsistence agriculture in these marginal areas. Continued population growth has led to the intensified cultivation of large areas of the sloping lands, exacerbating the problem of soil erosion. Although research shows that alley cropping and other contour agroforestry systems can stabilize the sloping lands, these systems have not been widely adopted by farmers. The Framework for Evaluating Sustainable Land Management (FESLM) has been tested in sloping land areas in the Philippines. Sustainable land management must be productive, stable, viable, and acceptable to farmers, while protecting soil and water resources. Farms on which contour hedgerow intercropping has been adopted meet the multifaceted requirements of FESLM, whereas the farmers' current practice does not. Appropriate land management measures for particular locations depend on a complex suite of social, economic, and biophysical factors, and need to be developed in participation with farmers. The role of agroforestry in sustainable management of sloping lands is the subject of networks coordinated by the International Board for Soil Research and Management (IBSRAM) in seven countries in Asia (ASIALAND) and four countries in the Pacific (PACIFICLAND). We review selected outcomes from a wealth of network data. From these results the following conclusions about the sustainability of various agroforestry systems for sloping lands can be drawn: • In the Pacific, soil loss from sloping lands due to water erosion under farmers' current practices is episodic, unpredictable, and possibly not severe; • Agroforestry systems that utilize legume shrubs, fruit trees, coffee (Coffea spp.) or rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) provide useful economic returns, but are not an essential component in terms of soil protection because grass or pineapple (Ananas comosus) planted on the contour are equally effective in reducing erosion; • Agricultural intensification will lead to nutrient mining, reduction of aboveground biomass, declining yields, and less soil protection unless external sources of nutrients are used; • nitrogen can be effectively supplied using legumes; • Cash derived from hedgerow trees and/or shrubs may providean incentive for their adoption by farmers, as well as funds to purchase external inputs such as fertilizers; • Labor may be a major constraint to the adoption of complex agroforestry systems. We also discuss the information management systems required to effectively manage and utilize the extensive sets of experimental and indigenous data being accumulated. We believe such information systems can facilitate technology transfer across and between regions, and improve the efficiency of research into agroforestry and other land-management approaches. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Agronomic and economic appraisal of alley cropping with Leucaena diversifolia on an acid soil in the highlands of Burundi

Although alley cropping has been shown elsewhere to permit continuous cropping, it has not been widely tested in the highlands of east and central Africa where it has the additional potential of controlling soil erosion. The effect of four rates (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg N ha^–1) of inorganic N on the performance of alley cropping using Leucaena diversifolia as the hedgerow species was studied in the central highlands of Burundi. Significant increase in maize yield (average of 26%) due to alley cropping was only first realised in 1992, three years after the commencement of the trial. In 1993, the average yield advantage of the alley cropping plots was 21%. The prunings augmented the response of maize yield to inorganic N in 1992 and 1993. Compared with the control, economic benefits over the five-year period for all the treatments were negative.     

Improving adoptability of farm forestry in the Philippine uplands: a linear programming model

In the Philippines, smallholder farmers have become major timber producers. But the systems of timber production practiced have several limitations. In intercropping systems, the practice of severe branch and/or root pruning reduces tree-crop competition and increases annual crop yields, but is detrimental to tree growth and incompatible with commercial timber production. In even-aged woodlots, lack of regular income and poor tree growth, resulting from farmers’ reluctance to thin their plantations, are major constraints to adoption and profitable tree farming. In the municipality of Claveria, Misamis Oriental, the recent practice of planting trees on widely spaced (6–8 m) contour grass strips established for soil conservation suggests ways to improve the adoptability (i.e., profitability, feasibility and acceptability) of timber-based agroforestry systems. Assuming that financial benefits are the main objective of timber tree farmers, we develop a simple linear programming (LP) model for the optimal allocation of land to monocropping and tree intercropping that maximizes the net present value of an infinite number of rotations and satisfies farmers’ resource constraints and regular income requirements. The application of the LP model to an average farmer in Claveria showed that cumulative additions of widely spaced tree hedgerows provides higher returns to land, and reduce the risk of agroforestry adoption by spreading over the years labour and capital investment costs and the economic benefits accruing to farmers from trees. Therefore, incremental planting of widely spaced tree hedgerows can make farm forestry more adoptable and thus benefit a larger number of resource-constrained farmers in their evolution towards more diverse and productive agroforestry systems.     

The potential of alley farming in humid West Africa — a re-evaluation

Previously published hypothesis concerning the potential impact of alley farming on maize yields are re-examined relative to the humid regions of West Africa. When more realistic assumptions regarding the availability of organic nitrogen are used, it is concluded that alley farming may have potential in a wider range of maize yield environments in West Africa than previously proposed. A pragmatic approach to alley farming research is proposed, and the importance of on-farm research in the development of ‘farmer friendly’ alley farming is stressed. (Former Agronomist, International Livestock Centre for Africa, P.M.B. 5320, Ibadan, Nigeria)     

Growth of four tree species managed as hedgerows in response to liming on an acid soil in West Sumatra,Indonesia

A hedgerow intercropping study was conducted for 7 years in West Sumatra, Indonesia on an acid and highly Al-saturated soil to determine growth and yield responses of tree hedgerows and upland rice and cowpea intercrops. Three tree species,Paraserianthes falcataria, Calliandra calothyrsus, andGliricidia sepium and a no-tree control were planted at three lime rates with low annual fertilizer inputs of 20 kg P and 50 kg K ha^–1.Paraserianthes andCalliandra grew vigorously, whileGliricidia grew poorly and was replaced after four years withFlemingia macrophylla. After four years,Paraserianthes yields declined due to tree mortality, probably due to intensive pruning.Calliandra andFlemingia were well adapted to intensive pruning (4 to 6 times per year). Gliricidia growth was especially limited by low soil Ca availability and high soil acid saturation.Calliandra andFlemingia yields increased with liming only in the last several years of the study whileParaserianthes did not respond to lime. The species can be tentatively ranked in response to lime as:Gliricidia > Calliandra > Flemingia > Paraserianthes.     

Effects of Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Steud and Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit on growth and development of Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeuschel.

Field studies carried out in a forest transition site on a tropical Alfisol in southwestern Nigeria, show that shading by gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Steud) and leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit) hedgerow species reduced density of speargrass (Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeuschel) by 67% and 51%, respectively. Shoot biomass of speargrass decreased by 81% and 78% in gliricidia and leucaena hedgerows, respectively. Reduction in speargrass rhizome biomass in gliricidia plots was 96% while rhizome reduction in the leucaena plots was nearly 90%. Rhizome mortality was significantly higher in gliricidia plots than in leucaena and control plots. The bulk of rhizomes was found between 10 cm and 20 cm of soil depth but rhizome did not penetrate further than 30 cm depth in the Alfisol in which this study was carried out. Gliricidia was better than leucaena hedgerow species in suppressing speargrass.     

Alley cropping of sorghum with Leucaena during the post-rainy season on Vertisols in semi-arid India

A field experiment was conducted for two years (1989– 1991) on a Vertisol in Bijapur, India in a split-plot design, replicated four times, to evaluate the potential of alley cropping post-rainy season sorghum between Leucaena hedgerows. Leucaena produced on average 2.74 t per ha of prunings and 1.57 t per ha of wood annually. Alley cropping decreased sorghum yields by 28 to 45% when all Leucaena prunings were removed from the system and by 21 to 24%, when on average 1.92 t per ha prunings were applied to the soil annually. The reduction of sorghum yield increased as higher rates of N were applied to sorghum. Although alley cropping increased organic carbon by 21% and available N by 19% at the time of crop sowing, it did not result in increased crop yields because of competition for water between hedgerows and crops. Calculation of land equivalent ratios based on total Leucaena biomass indicated that alley cropping was more productive than sole cropping of sorghum only in one year, and that, too, when no N was applied to sorghum. Therefore, alley cropping of Vertisols with post-rainy season sorghum is not likely to have any advantage in the short term. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

等高植物篱模式下土壤物理性质变化与水土保持效果研究进展

等高植物篱模式就是在坡耕地上每隔4~8m的距离沿等高线将植物篱与作物种植带相间分布的一种农林复合经营模式,用于坡耕地的水土保持。已有的研究结果表明,等高植物篱技术用于坡耕地可有效地改善土壤物理性质和土壤水分状况,防治坡耕地水土流失效果显著,土壤水分的季节性再分配也有利于农作物的生长。但是该系统内植物篱和农作物相互之间的水分和养分关系有待深入研究。     

天然降雨下川中丘陵区不同年限植物篱水土保持效用

通过对遂宁水土保持试验站内不同坡度(10°和15°)植物篱小区及对应对照小区为期7年的水土流失定位观测,探究了天然降雨条件下香根草植物篱和新银合欢植物篱在其生长年限增长过程中对紫色土坡耕地水土流失的影响。结果表明:(1)当植物篱开始发挥其水土保持作用时,减流率(年均)达10.5%～20.0%,减沙率(年均)达53.5%～54.5%,减流作用随年限增长波动较大,减沙作用逐渐趋稳;(2)10°香根草植物篱水土保持效果最优,其减流和减沙作用均在生长年限为1年时开始发挥,10°新银合欢植物篱次之,其减沙作用较减流作用提前约1年凸显,15°香根草植物篱最弱,其布设小区多数次降雨减流率均明显低于10°植物篱小区;(3)总体上植物篱能够降低坡度对坡耕地水土流失的加剧作用,其中径流流失减少28.9%,泥沙流失减少11.3%,并削弱降雨量与径流泥沙的相关程度;(4)平均径流系数和降雨引发泥沙量随植物篱年限增长逐渐趋稳,其中10°小区香根草植物篱和新银合欢植物篱对特大暴雨(12 h降水总量140.0 mm)和大暴雨(12 h降水总量为70～140 mm)下产生的径流系数消减明显,达15.0%～34.4%,各植物篱对所有降雨等级平均单位降雨所产生泥沙量均有明显消减作用,达34.1%～48.5%。