Rural depopulation and recent landscape changes in a Mediterranean region: Consequences to the breeding avifauna

We studied the vegetational and avifaunistic changes following rural depopulation in an area covering 2,600 ha north of Montpellier (Southern France). The study area is covered by a mosaic of Mediterranean habitats that includes cultivation, grasslands, shrublands, and woodlands and is representative of the natural features present and of the human usage practiced so far in this part of the Mediterranean. We sampled the vegetation and the bird fauna in the same 193 census plots in 1978 and in 1992. At both the habitat and landscape scales the cover of woody plants increased significantly. Open habitats tend to disappear. As a consequence the abundance of open-habitat bird species decreased significantly whereas the abundance of forest birds increased significantly. These changes favor a pool of forest species widespread in western Europe and reduce habitat availability for open habitat and shrubland species. Many of the latter are Mediterranean species whose distribution in Western Europe could become reduced under current landscape dynamics. Our observation of more woodlands and their typical birds and of less open habitats and their associated avifauna is not consistent with the traditional worry shown by the public and the managers about the regression of forests and woodlands in the Northern Mediterranean as a consequence of fire.     

广州市南沙黄山鲁森林公园鸟类调查初报

对广州市南沙区黄山鲁森林公园鸟类组成、鸟类区系、鸟类物种多样性和资源鸟类进行了研究.在森林公园境内共记录了鸟类41种,隶属6目,19科.其中,留鸟28种,冬候鸟12种,夏候鸟1种.根据中国动物区系的划分,东洋界物种22种,古北界物种8种,广布种11种.     

常州区金坛区鸟类资源研究

金坛区鸟类资源丰富,鸟类区系组成多样化,包含多种珍稀保护鸟类,同时在鸟类的组成上呈现出明显的季节性。通过野外调查和收集资料相结合的途径获得数据,运用植鸟类调查基本原理和方法,对金坛区鸟类资源进行全面整理、定量统计和系统分析,为本地区鸟类资源的保护与合理利用提供了科学依据。     

浙江江山市林区食虫鸟类初步调查

本文报道了1987～1989年在江山市林区鸟类调查的初步结果。记录鸟类102种,隶属12目29科。留鸟52种,冬候鸟32种,夏候鸟18种。其中重要的食虫鸟类有46种,值得很好保护,特别是在该区繁殖的鸟类。文末记述了6种鸟巢。     

浙江省鸟类的生态地理初步研究

浙江省鸟类计410种,隶属19目63科203属。本文对浙江鸟类的生态群和地理分布进行叙述和讨论,初步建议浙江省境内的鸟类区系划分为6省2州。     

Conservation biology for suites of species: Demographic modeling for Pacific island kingfishers

Conservation practitioners frequently extrapolate data from single-species investigations when managing critically endangered populations. However, few researchers initiate work with the intent of making findings useful to conservation efforts for other species. We presented and explored the concept of conducting conservation-oriented research for suites of geographically separated populations with similar natural histories, resource needs, and extinction threats. An example was provided in the form of an investigation into the population demography of endangered Micronesian kingfishers (Todiramphus cinnamominus). We provided the first demographic parameter estimates for any of the 12 endangered Pacific Todiramphus species, and used results to develop a population projection matrix model for management throughout the insular Pacific. Further, we used the model for elasticity and simulation analyses with demographic values that randomly varied across ranges that might characterize congener populations. Results from elasticity and simulation analyses indicated that changes in breeding adult survival exerted the greatest magnitude of influence on population dynamics. However, changes in nestling survival were more consistently correlated with population dynamics as demographic rates were randomly altered. We concluded that conservation practitioners working with endangered Pacific kingfishers should primarily focus efforts on factors affecting nestling and breeder survival, and secondarily address fledgling juveniles and helpers. Further, we described how the generalized base model might be changed to focus on individual populations and discussed the potential application of multi-species models to other conservation situations.     

Bird assemblages in forest fragments within Mediterranean mosaics created by wild fires

The role of habitat heterogeneity as a key factor in determining species pools in habitat mosaics has been acknowledged, but we still know little on the relative importance of the different ecological processes acting within such complex landscapes. We compared species richness and distribution in forest fragments imbedded in shrub-lands to those in continuous forests or in continuous shrublands. We examined the consistency of our data with the predictions of two hypotheses: 1) the Habitat fragmentation hypothesis which states that fragmentation has negative effects on the species from the original continuous habitat; 2) the Habitat supplementation /complementation hypothesis which stipulates that the presence of a matrix habitat around the fragments will mitigate negative effects on the species from the original habitat (supplementation) or allow the presence of species that depend on the presence of both the fragment and matrix habitats (complementation). We show that: 1) species richness in forest fragments did not differ from species richness in segments of continuous forests of equal area; 2) the bird community of forest fragments got impoverished in some forest species but a higher proportion of species common in continuous forests were not affected by fragmentation; 3) fragment communities had a significant proportion of common species that were scarce in, or absent from both continuous forests and shrublands. While, a few forest species supported predictions from the fragmentation hypothesis, occurrence patterns observed in several other species were consistent with either the supplementation or the complementation hypotheses. Our results suggest that there is no single hypothesis that properly captures the consequences of a shift from continuous forests to a mosaic of forest fragments and shrublands and that different ecological mechanisms act in conjunction to determine species pools in habitat mosaics. Habitat heterogeneity at a local scale appears a key factor in maintaining bird diversity in fire driven Mediterranean landscapes.     

Monitoring Growth Trials

The forestry industry predominantly depends on privately-owned forests which are foreign-owned, capital intensive and export oriented. The man-made forests cover 102 000 ha, about 6% of the total area of Swaziland. The two largest plantations, Usutu and Peak Timbers, account for 71% of the total plantation area in the Kingdom.

Pines and eucalypts are the two main genera planted for pulp, mining timber, sawtimber and droppers. There are nine companies engaged in the processing of wood into various products.

The land classified as marginal in Swaziland on account of low rainfall (less than 600 mm) occurs in low-veld, with characteristic tree species like Acacia nigrescens (umkhaya), Acacia tortilis (sitfwetfwe) and a fruit tree Sclerocarya caffra (umganu). In this region, plantation agriculture of citrus trees and sugar cane is only possible under irrigation. In terms of low inherent soil fertility in the highveld, plantation forests are grown on acidic granite and gneiss and also on land whose average gradient is more than 15%. Biotically induced marginal land occurs because of man and his activities: overstocking of livestock, uncontrolled burning of the veld during the dry winter, inadequate soil husbandry, increase in demand for various forest products and infrastructural development.

Low rainfall between 1974 and 1976 killed Eucalyptus grandis and Pinus taeda and reduced the growth rate of Pinus patula. Most of the forest sites in Swaziland are marginal land on account of granite and gneiss-derived soils of low pH, i.e., 4,5 to 5. Between 1981 and 1982, 27 t of different fertilisers were used in order to achieve an MAI of at least 17 m³/ha/a of utilisable material for Pinus patula on a 22 year rotation.

Usutu Forest and Peak Timbers Plantations have progressively contributed to the economy of Swaziland since the 1940s. In 1978, forest plantations and forestry oriented industries contributed about 24% of the total export earnings. During 1980, 95% of the unbleached kraft pulp was sold outside Southern Africa, while 3,1% of the total forest products was consumed in Swaziland. The forest plantations have improved the general infrastructure, including roads and educational and recreational facilities in the areas where they occur.

Resettlement schemes have also been undertaken among the displaced people.

The interest of the Swaziland Government lies chiefly in regulation and control of the forest sector, to optimise the existing resources to the benefit of the Swazi people, mainly for economic use of the land and water resources and encouraging national participation, at both wage employment and management levels, as well as implementing forest legislation.

Plantation forest activities have, however, several disadvantages to be cited: They are land extensive and therefore tend to encroach on land used for communal grazing and hunting, bee collecting and firewood and fruit gathering, all of which are difficult to quantify in monetary terms. The Euro-American philosophy of replacing open communal land with fenced boundaries marked by cairns, with penalties on contravention, cannot be readily accepted.

The forest product needs for the rural community come from the Swazi Nation Land, covering 65% of the total area of Swaziland. The biotic factors have much reduced the original area of vegetation cover which has resulted in the use of non-conventional material like cow dung, maize stalks, leaves of Aloe marlothii (inhlaba) and tall grass for fuel. The commercial forests are located far from the population centres, thus making transportation of the forest waste an uneconomic venture.

The Forestry Section, under the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, is working in close co-operation with the Rural Development Area (R.D.A.) programme to raise the general standard of living in the rural areas by establishing woodlots. In the current five-year National Development Plan, the Government plans to establish 13 000 ha of woodlots, carry out an indigenous forest inventory, implement forest legislation and train forestry personnel at all levels.

With the assistance of R.D.A. Project Managers, the donga-ridden areas on the biotically induced marginal land are fenced off and then planted with suitable tree species.

Black wattle, Acacia mearnsii, introduced in Swaziland at the beginning of this century, is predomminantly used for bark production. It covers 5 000 ha on Swazi Nation Land and 2 500 ha on Title Deed Land. Lack of proper management of black wattle has turned it into “jungles” in the Highveld, where land is not used for agricultural production. The yield of wet wattle bark is low on Title Deed Land, i.e. 15 to 20 t/ha. The bark is marketed on a basic bark quota system managed by a wattle growers committee of Pietermaritzburg. Wattle growers of Swaziland have now formed a cooperative to enable them to transport the bark economically.

The spread of black wattle has checked the formation of dongas in biotically induced marginal areas, but at the same time there is a general resentment among the rural community who believe it is eating up their grazing land. The public believe also that eucalypts are responsible for the drying up of streams and encouraging lightning in the rural areas.

Indigenous Acacia species are drought resistant, more favoured as fuelwood, but their MAI is very low and their seed is very difficult to collect and extract. Even when using exotic tree species in establishing woodlots, proper provenances are not easy to obtain.

Agro-forestry is being undertaken particularly in RDA's where individual farmers get tree seedlings from the forestry nurseries and plant them among agricultural crops.     

江苏宝应湖湿地秋冬两季鸟类区系组成及多样性调查

于2012年9月至2013年3月采用样线法对江苏扬州宝应湖湿地冬季鸟类的区系组成进行调研,调查期间共记录到鸟类56种,隶属11目28科。冬季鸟类组成中,留鸟31种,冬候鸟19种,旅鸟6种。古北界鸟类24种,东洋界鸟类20种,其余12种为广布型,鸟类的区系组成兼有古北界和东洋界过渡的特点。鸟类群落多样性的比较分析显示,湖岸生境较敞水区生境的鸟类多样性程度高。调查期间未发现大型雁鸭类。结果表明,保护区域内越冬鸟类的多样性,必须权衡满足当地居民对淡水资源的合理需求与尽可能多地保护生物多样性这两者之间的关系。     

Conservation value of forest plantations for bird communities in western Kenya

Tree plantations of native and exotic species are frequently used to compensate for forest loss in the tropics. However, these plantations may support lower species diversity and different communities than natural forest. We therefore investigated bird communities in stands of natural forest, different types of tree plantations and secondary forest in Kakamega Forest, western Kenya. We compared birds differing in habitat specialisation, i.e. forest specialists, generalists, and visitors. We recorded significant differences in mean species richness and number of individuals among the different forest types. Stands of natural forest and plantations of indigenous tree species comprised more species and individuals than plantations of exotic tree species and secondary forest. This was caused by a significant decline of forest specialists and generalists from natural forest and indigenous plantations to exotic plantations and secondary forest. Species composition of the bird communities did not differ between natural forest stands and plantations of a mixture of indigenous tree species, but clearly changed between natural forest and plantations of single tree species. These findings demonstrate that natural forest areas are needed for the conservation of forest bird diversity, but that plantations with a mixture of indigenous tree species can have similarly high conservation value.