Maize production under risk: The simultaneous adoption of off-farm income diversification and agricultural credit to manage risk

Farmers in Pakistan continue to produce maize under various types of risks and adopt several strategies to manage those risks. This study is the first attempt to investigate the factors affecting the concurrent adoption of off-farm income diversification and agricultural credit which the farmers use to manage the risk to maize production. We apply bivariate and multinomial probit approaches to the primary data collected from four districts of Punjab Province in Pakistan. The results show that strong correlations exist between the off-farm diversification and agricultural credit which indicates that the use of one risk management strategy leads to another. The findings demonstrate that education, livestock number, maize farming experience, perceptions of biological risks and risk-averse nature of the growers significantly encourage the adoption of diversification as a risk management tool while farm size inversely affects the adoption of diversification. Similarly, in the adoption equation of credit, maize farming experience, farm size, perceptions of price and biological risks and risk attitude of farmers significantly enhance the chances of adopting agricultural credit to manage farm risks. These findings are important for the relevant stakeholders who seek to offer carefully designed risk minimizing options to the maize farmers.     

Effect of different pre-sowing water application depths on wheat yield under spate irrigation in Dera Ismael Khan District of Pakistan

Spate irrigation is a method of flood water harvesting, practiced in Dera Ismael Khan (D.I. Khan), Pakistan for agricultural production for the last several hundred years in which during monsoon period flood water is used for irrigation before wheat sowing. A field study on the effect of different pre-sowing water application depths on the yield of wheat was conducted during 2006-2007. The spate irrigation command areas normally receive the flood water as a result of rainfall on the mountains during the months of July to September, which also carries a significant amount of sediment load. The flood water flows in different torrents and is diverted through earthen bunds to the fields for irrigation with depth of water application ranging from 21 to 73 cm and resulted in sediment deposition of 1.8-3.6 cm per irrigation. In this study, the effect on wheat yield of three different pre-sowing water application depths (D1 < 30 cm, D2 = 30-45 cm and D3 > 45 cm) were studied under field conditions. Fifteen fields with field sizes of about 2-3 ha were randomly selected, in each field five samples were collected for analysis of soil physical properties, yield and yield components. Five major soil texture classes (silty clay, clay loam, silty clay loam, silt loam and loam) were found in the area with water-holding capacity ranging from 23% to 36.3% (on a volume basis) and bulk density varied from 1.35 to 1.42 g cm⁻³. About 36% more grain yield was obtained from loam soil fields, followed by silt loam (24%) as compared to wheat grown on silty clay soil condition. The maximum wheat grain yield of 3448 kg ha⁻¹ was obtained from fields with water application depths of 30-45 cm and the lowest wheat yield was recorded in fields with water application depths greater than 45 cm. On-farm application efficiencies ranged from 22% to 93% with an overall average of about 49%. Due to large and uneven fields, a lot of water is lost. In general, the application efficiency decreased with increasing water application depth. Based on the results of this research, in arid to semi-arid environments, for optimum wheat yield under spate irrigation, the pre-sowing water application depth may be about 30-45 cm (September to July) and under or over irrigation should be avoided.     

Comparison of water use efficiency,profitability and consumer preferences of different rice varieties in Punjab,Pakistan

Paddy and Water Environment - Due to rapid population growth, water scarcity and food insecurity have become the major problems for Pakistan. Therefore, the efficient utilization of limited...     

FOLIAR APPLICATION OF BORON INFLUENCES THE LEAF MINERAL STATUS,VEGETATIVE AND REPRODUCTIVE GROWTH,YIELD AND FRUIT QUALITY OF ‘KINNOW’ MANDARIN (CITRUS RETICULATA BLANCO.)

The effects of foliar application of boron (B) in the form of boric acid on vegetative and reproductive growth, yield and fruit quality of ‘Kinnow’ mandarin (Citrus reticulate Blanco.) were investigated. Kinnow mandarin was sprayed with different concentrations of boric acid viz. (0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3% and 0.4%) at fruit set stage. Leaf nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), B, and zinc (Zn) along with flush length, tree height, tree spread and tree trunk diameter increased, while leaf length and leaf age showed non-significant results after foliar B application. Yield of the ‘Kinnow’ mandarin was significantly affected by foliar application of B and a significant increase in fruit weight at harvest was also observed. Soluble solid concentration (SSC): titratable acidity (TA) ratio, ascorbic acid, total sugars, total phenolic content (TPC) and total antioxidants significantly affected, while pH of juice, SSC, TA, reducing sugars and non-reducing sugars showed non- significant results.     

FOLIAR APPLICATION OF ZINC INFLUENCES THE LEAF MINERAL STATUS,VEGETATIVE AND REPRODUCTIVE GROWTH,YIELD AND FRUIT QUALITY OF ‘KINNOW’ MANDARIN

Deficiency of zinc (Zn) is widespread in many citrus orchards of Pakistan, consequently hampering fruit yield. Effects of foliar applications of zinc sulfate on tree nutrition, growth, productivity and fruit quality were studied on ‘Kinnow’ mandarin. Leaf nitrogen (N), calcium (Ca), and manganese (Mn) were highest for trees sprayed with 0.2% zinc sulfate, while phosphorus (P) and iron (Fe) were highest with 0.6% zinc sulfate and potassium (K) and Zn were highest with 0.8% Zn sulfate applications. Trees sprayed with 0.6% zinc sulfate exhibited highest increase in height, crown width and stem girth, fruit diameter, fruit weight, ascorbic acid contents, and total phenolics compared to all other treatments. Pre-harvest fruit drop was lowest and total number and weight of fruit per tree was highest at harvest with 0.4% zinc sulfate application. In conclusion, foliar application of zinc sulfate up to 0.6% improved tree mineral nutrients, growth, and productivity with better fruit quality in ‘Kinnow’ mandarin.     

Étude comparée des capacités infectieuses des différentes espèces ou variétés deFusarium responsables de la pourriture sèche des tubercules de pomme de terre

Résumé La capacité infectieuse de 5 espèces ou variétés deFusarium responsables de la pourriture des tubercules est étudiée.F. roseum var.sambucinum possède la capacité infectieuse la plus importante.F.r. var.arthrosporioides etF.r. var.culmorum sont, à l'inverse, caractérisés par une capacité infectieuse faible, ils ne produisent des pourritures qu'à des doses élevées de spores et sont rapidement limités par la cicatrisation. Enfin,F. solani var.coeruleum etF.r. var.graminearum possèdent un comportement intermédiaire. Le niveau de ‘virulence’ des 5Fusarium apprécié sur 9 cultivars, est identique mais leur niveau ‘d'agressivité’ varie; ils sont doués d'une agressivité non-spécifique (l'ensemble desFusarium provoque sur un cultivar déterminé, le même niveau de maladie) ou spécifique (une espèce ou variété deFusarium possède un comportement déterminé sur un cultivar qui ne correspond pas à celui des autresFusarium). Il est traité dans la discussion-conclusion de l'apport de ces résultats dans un programme de sélection vis-à-vis des Fusarioses.

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Summary The objective of this study is to confirm the infective potential of 5 species or varieties ofFusarium causing dry rot in potato tubers (F. roseum var.sambucinum (F.r. samb.), F. solani var.coeruleum (F.s. coer.), F. roseum var.arthrosporioides (F.r. arth.), F. roseum var.culmorum (F.r. culm.) andF. roseum var.graminearum (F.r. gram.)) in relation to different factors: inoculum level, wound type, time taken for wound healing, physiological age of tubers and cultivar. At low inoculum levels, certainFusarium can be highly aggressive, for exampleF.r. samb. and to a lesser extentF.s. coer. andF.r. gram., whereas others (F.r. arth. andF.r. culm.) can initiate a rot only when the inoculum level is high (Fig. 1 and Table 1). With respect to wounding (Tables 2 and 3),F.r. samb. causes extensive lesions regardless of wound type in contrast to the otherFusarium which do so only when the wounds are deeper than 2 mm. The reaction of the differentFusarium to wound healing is variable (Fig. 2). Some(F.r. culm. andF.r. arth.) are usually not affected whereas with others infection is arrested after a longer healing time: 8 days in the case ofF.s. coer. andF.r. samb. and longer withF.r. gram. Wound healing reaction can modify the relative ranking order of cultivars; a cultivar classified as resistant to aFusarium in the absence of healing can find itself grouped with the less resistant ones after wound healing probably because of a rate of healing lower than that of the other cultivars (Table 4). Behaviour of the different species and varieties ofFusarium is not affected differently by the physiological age of tubers; disease level is lower in young than in older tubers (Table 5). Moreover, cultivar reaction is more pronounced on young than on older tubers.

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Zusammenfassung Das Ziel dieser Studie ist es die Infektionskapazit?t von fünf Arten oder Sorten des für die Trockenf?ule der Kartoffelknollen verantwortlichenFusarium zu pr?zisieren (F. roseum var.sambucinum (F.r. samb.), F. solani var.coeruleum (F.s. coer.), F. roseum var.arthrosporioides (F.r. arth.), F. roseum var.culmorum (F.r. culm.) undF. roseum var.graminearum (F.r. gram.)) im Bezug auf diverse Faktoren: Inokulumdosis, Art der Verletzung, Wundheilungsdauer, physiologisches Alter der Knollen und Sorte. GewisseFusarium zeichen sich schon bei einer schwachen Dosis durch eine erh?hte Agressivit?t aus; dies ist der Fall fürF.r. samb. und mit verminderter St?rke, fürF.s. coer. undF.r. gram., die anderen hingegen (F.r. arth. undF.r. culm.) k?nnen nur bei gr?sseren Dosen von Impfstoff zu einer F?ule führen (Abb. 1 und Tab. 1). Was die Verletzungen betrifft (Tab. 2 und 3) provoziertF.r. samb. gr?sseren Schaden bei jeglicher Art von Verletzung im Gegensatz zu den anderenFusarium die nur bei einer Mindesttiefe der Verletzungen von 2 mm zu einer starken erkrankung fürhren. Im Bezug auf die Wundheilung sind unterschiedliche Reaktionen der verschiedenenFusarium zu beobachten (Darstellung 2); gewisse sind selten begrenzt (dies ist der Fall fürF.r. culm. undF.r. arth.), andere kommen nach einer l?ngeren Wundheilungszeit zum Stillstand: 8 Tage fürF.s. coer. undF.r. samb. oder noch l?nger fürF.r. gram. Die Vernarbungsreaktion kann das ungef?hre Sortenklassement ver?ndern; eine für ein Fusarium wenig empfindliche Sorte kann zu den Empfindlichsten geh?ren durch ihres Verhalten bei der Wundheilung, wenn ihre Vernarbungszeit l?nger dauert als die anderer Sorten (Tab. 4). Die verschiedenen Arten oder Sorten desFusarium reagieren auf gleiche Weise was das physiologische Alter der Knollen betrifft. Der Krankheitsbestand ist auf jüngeren Knollen schw?cher als auf ?lteren (Tab. 5). Weiter ist das Verhalten der verschiedenen Sorten deutlicher bei den jungen Knollen als bei alten.

     

Drought-Induced Changes in Xylem Sap pH,ABA and Stomatal Conductance

Upstream signals potentially regulating evaporation and stomatal conductance were investigated using 6-8-leaf-old maize(Zea may L.)seedlings which were grown in a greenhouse.Pressure chamber was used to measure leaf water potential and to collect xylem sap.The pH of xylem sap in stems was higher than that in root,and the abscisic acid(ABA)concentration in stems was the highest in well-watered seedlings.The ABA concentration and pH of xylem sap in roots,stems and leaves increased,and the ABA concentration in leaves reached the maximum during drought stress.The treatment of roots with exogenous ABA solution(100 μmol L-1)increased xylem sap ABA concentration in all organs measured,and induced stomatal closure,but did not change ABA distribution among organs of maize seedlings.The combined effects of external pH buffer on pH,ABA of xylem sap and stomatal behavior indicated that pH,as a root-source signal to leaves under drought stress,regulated stomatal closure through accumulating ABA in leaves or guard cells.     

基于生物技术的集约农业—未来农业的希望

Future challenges of agriculture inevitably demand knowledge and technology based revitalization of farm-ing. A strategic and rational resource management approach has to be adopted for achieving the productivity enhancement goals without compromising on natural resources. Intensive fanning system characterized by intensive use of chemical inputs, though made it possible to significantly increase the productivity during 20th century assuring proper food for the growing population, created several health and environmental concerns, compromised on crop quality and has become cost intensive. Its potential is exhausted. However, these problems are not the inevitable consequences of intensive fanning system. These problems can be readdressed and their intensity can be alleviated by shifting-over to “Biotechnological-intensive Fanning System“. Biotechnology and genetic transformation techniques in combination with conventional breeding methods can produce better quality and high yielding novel crops with enhanced nutritional level, resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses leading to less use of chemicals thereby lowering the production cost and ameliorating the problems affiliated with intensive fanning system. Biotechnological-intensive Fanning System has a greater potential to meet the future challenges of food production in 21^st century for burgeoning population. It is compatible with the objective of integrated resource management for sustainability of agricultural resource foundation and is human and environment friendly. Combiningbiotechnological innovations and genetic modification of crops with fanning under a suitable policy framework is our best hope for the future.     

Water stress effects on biochemical traits and antioxidant activities of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) under In vitro conditions

Water stress is one of the major environmental stresses that affect agricultural production worldwide, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. This research investigated the effect of water deficit, induced by PEG-6000 on wheat genotypes (GA-2002, Chakwal-97, Uqab-2000, Chakwal-50 and Wafaq-2001) grown in modified MS medium solution. Osmotic stress caused a more pronounced inhibition in leaf relative water content and leaf membrane stability more sensitive (index in Wafaq-2001 and Uqab-2000) genotypes compared with the tolerant (Chakwal-50, GA-2002 and Chakwal-97) genotypes. Upon dehydration, an incline in proline, total soluble sugar, total soluble protein, superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, catalase and malondialdehyde activity content were evident in all genotypes, especially at osmotic stress of ?8 bars. The observed data showed that status of biochemical attributes and antioxidant enzymes could provide a meaningful tool for depicting drought tolerance of wheat genotypes. The present study shows that genotypic differences in drought tolerance could be likely attributed to the ability of wheat plants to induce antioxidant defense under drought conditions. In order to develop genotypes with stable, higher yields in dry farming conditions, it is necessary to characterise genetic resources based on drought adaptation, determine suitable genotypes, and then use them in breeding programmes.